User:Kharbaan Ghaltaan/sandbox2

Saddam Hussein was born in al-Awja, a small village near Tikrit to Hussein Abd Al-Majid and Subha Tulfah Al-Mussallat. They both were from the Albu Nasir tribe, a tribe that had descended from Ahmed Bin Hussein 'Nasiruddin' who was a descendant of Imam Hussein Bin Ali. The Albu Nasir tribe had settled in Tikrit after migrating from Yemen.^[2][3] Saddam's brother and father both died of cancer before his birth. These deaths made Saddam's mother, Subha Tulfah al-Mussallat, so depressed that she unsuccessfully attempted to abort her pregnancy and commit suicide. His mother was saved by a neighboring Jewish family.^[4] Subha "would have nothing to do with him," and Saddam would eventually be taken in by an uncle.^[5]

His mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, and (according to a psychological profile created by the CIA) beat him regularly, sometimes to wake him up.^[6][7] At around the age of 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in Baghdad with his uncle Khairallah Talfah, who became a fatherly figure to Saddam.^[8] Talfah, the father of Saddam's future wife, was a devout Sunni Muslim and a veteran of the 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War between Iraqi nationalists and the United Kingdom, which remained a major colonial power in the region.^[9] Talfah was later appointed the mayor of Baghdad during Saddam's time in power, until his notorious corruption compelled Saddam to force him out of office.^[8]

Later in his life, relatives from his native city became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under the guidance of his uncle, he attended a nationalistic high school in Baghdad. After secondary school, Saddam studied at an Iraqi law school for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab Ba'ath Party, of which his uncle was a supporter.

Saddam dropped at the age of 20 and joined Ba'ath Party. During this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher.^[10] Ba'athist ideology originated in Syria and the Ba'ath Party had a large following in Syria at the time, but in 1955 there were fewer than 300 Ba'ath Party members in Iraq and it is believed that Saddam's primary reason for joining the party as opposed to the more established Iraqi nationalist parties was his familial connection to Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and other leading Ba'athists through his uncle.^[8]

Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of the era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East. In Iraq progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites (colonial-era bureaucrats and landowners, wealthy merchants and tribal chiefs, and monarchists).^[11] Moreover, the pan-Arab nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Ba'athists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout the Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq, Egypt, and Libya.

Nasser inspired nationalists throughout the Middle East by fighting the British and the French during the Suez Crisis of 1956, modernizing Egypt, and uniting the Arab world politically.^[12] His father-in-law, Khairallah Talfah, was reported to have served five years in prison for his role in fighting against Great Britain in the 1941 Iraqi coup d'état and Anglo-Iraqi War, and often mentored and told tales of his exploits to the young Saddam.^[7] Iraq was under monarchy rule, known as Kingdom of Iraq. In 1958, a year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew Faisal II of Iraq in the 14 July Revolution.

The Ba'ath Party was originally represented in Qasim's cabinet; however, Qasim—reluctant to join Nasser's newly formed union between Egypt and Syria—sided with various groups within Iraq (notably the social democrats and the Iraqi Communist Party) that told him such an action would be dangerous. Instead, Qasim adopted a wataniyah policy of "Iraq First".^[13][14] To strengthen his own position within the government, Qasim also had an alliance with the Iraqi Communist Party, which was opposed to the notion of pan-Arabism.^[15] His policies angered several pan-Arab organisations, including the Ba'ath Party, which later began plotting to assassinate Qasim at Al-Rashid Street on 7 October 1959 and take power. Saddam was recruited to the assassination conspiracy by its ring-leader, Abdul Karim al-Shaikhly, after one of the would-be assassins left.^[16] During the ambush, Saddam (who was only supposed to provide cover) began shooting prematurely, which disorganised the whole operation. Qasim's chauffeur was killed and Qasim was hit in the arm and shoulder. The assassins thought they had killed Qasim and quickly retreated to their headquarters, but Qasim survived.^[16] Saddam himself is not believed to have received any training outside of Iraq, as he was a late addition to the assassination team.^[17]

Richard Sale of United Press International (UPI), citing former U.S. diplomat and intelligence officials, Adel Darwish, and other experts, reported that the unsuccessful assassination attempt on Qasim was a collaboration between the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Egyptian intelligence.^[18] Pertinent contemporary records relating to CIA operations in Iraq have remained classified or heavily redacted, thus "allow[ing] for plausible deniability."^[19] It is generally accepted that Egypt, in some capacity, was involved in the assassination attempt, and that "[t]he United States was working with Nasser on some level."^[20] Sale and Darwish's account has been disputed by historian Bryan R. Gibson who concludes that available U.S. declassified documents show that "while the United States was aware of several plots against Qasim, it had still adhered to [a] nonintervention policy."^[21] On the other hand, historian Kenneth Osgood writes that "the circumstantial evidence is such that the possibility of US–UAR collaboration with Ba'ath Party activists cannot be ruled out," concluding that "[w]hatever the validity of [Sale's] charges, at the very least currently declassified documents reveal that US officials were actively considering various plots against Qasim and that the CIA was building up assets for covert operations in Iraq."^[20]

At the time of the attack, the Ba'ath Party had fewer than 1,000 members,^[22] however the failed assassination attempt led to widespread exposure for Saddam and the Ba'ath within Iraq, where both had previously languished in obscurity, and later became a crucial part of Saddam's public image during his tenure as president of Iraq.^[20][23] Kanan Makiya recounts that in this episode, his biography—and Iraqi television, the man and the myth converge as his biography and Iraqi television repeatedly depict his early exposure to guns, his unwavering loyalty and fearlessness during the 1959 operation, his brave acts of rescuing comrades at gunpoint, the removal of a bullet from his own flesh while in hiding, his strict discipline in protecting the wounded, his cleverness in evading capture moments before the police arrived, and his arduous journey across houses, cities, and the desert to seek refuge in Syria.^[24]

Michel Aflaq, the leader of the Ba'athist movement, organized the expulsion of leading Iraqi Ba'athist members, such as Fuad al-Rikabi, on the grounds that the party should not have initiated the attempt on Qasim's life. At the same time, Aflaq secured seats in the Iraqi Ba'ath leadership for his supporters, one of them being Saddam.^[25] The assassins, including Saddam, all eventually escaped to Cairo, Egypt "where they enjoyed Nasser's protection for the remainder of Qasim's tenure in power."^[26] Saddam initially escaped to Syria and then to Egypt itself in February 1960, and he continued to live there until 1963, graduating from high school in 1961 and unsuccessfully pursuing a law degree^[27] at Cairo Law School (1962–1963).^[28] It is possible that Saddam visited the U.S. embassy in Cairo during his exile,^[29] and some evidence suggests that he was "in frequent contact with US officials and intelligence agents."^[20] A former high-ranking U.S. official told historians Marion Farouk–Sluglett and Peter Sluglett that Iraqi Ba'athists, including Saddam, "had made contact with the American authorities in the late 1950s and early 1960s."^[30]

Army officers with ties to the Ba'ath Party overthrew Qasim in the Ramadan Revolution coup of February 1963; long suspected to be supported by the CIA,^[31][32] however pertinent contemporary documents relating to the CIA's operations in Iraq have remained classified by the U.S. government,^[33][34] although the Ba'athists are documented to have maintained supportive relationships with U.S. officials before, during, and after the coup.^[35][36] Ba'athist leaders were appointed to the cabinet and Abdul Salam Arif became president. Arif dismissed and arrested the Ba'athist leaders later that year in the November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état. Being exiled in Egypt at the time, Saddam played no role in the 1963 coup or the brutal anti-communist purge that followed; although he returned to Iraq after the coup, becoming a key organizer within the Ba'ath Party's civilian wing upon his return.^[37]

Unlike during the Qasim years, Saddam remained in Iraq following Arif's anti-Ba'athist purge in November 1963, and became involved in planning to assassinate Arif. In marked contrast to Qasim, Saddam knew that he faced no death penalty from Arif's government and knowingly accepted the risk of being arrested rather than fleeing to Syria again. Saddam was arrested in October 1964 and served approximately two years in prison before escaping in 1966.^[38] In 1966, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr appointed him Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command. Saddam, who would prove to be a skilled organizer, revitalized the party.^[39] He was elected to the Regional Command, as the story goes, with help from Michel Aflaq—the founder of Ba'athist thought.^[40] In September 1966, Saddam initiated an extraordinary challenge to Syrian domination of the Ba'ath Party in response to the Marxist takeover of the Syrian Ba'ath earlier that year, resulting in the Party's formalized split into two separate factions.^[41] Saddam then created a Ba'athist security service, which he alone controlled.^[42]

In July 1968, Saddam participated in a bloodless coup led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr that overthrew Abdul Rahman Arif,^[43]: 174 Salam Arif's brother and successor. While Saddam's role in the coup was not hugely significant (except in the official account), Saddam planned and carried out the subsequent purge of the non-Ba'athist faction led by Prime Minister Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif, whose support had been essential to the coup's success.^[44] According to a semi-official biography, Saddam personally led Naif at gunpoint to the plane that escorted him out of Iraq.^[45] Arif was given refuge in London and then Istanbul.

Al-Bakr was named president and Saddam was named his deputy, and deputy chairman of the Ba'athist Revolutionary Command Council. According to biographers, Saddam never forgot the tensions within the first Ba'athist government, which formed the basis for his measures to promote Ba'ath party unity as well as his resolve to maintain power and programs to ensure social stability. Although Saddam was al-Bakr's deputy, he was a strong behind-the-scenes party politician. Al-Bakr was the older and more prestigious of the two, but by 1969 Saddam clearly had become the moving force behind the party.

Within just a few years, Iraq was providing social services that were unprecedented among Middle Eastern countries.^[46] Saddam established and controlled the "National Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy" and the campaign for "Compulsory Free Education in Iraq", and largely under his auspices, the government established universal free schooling up to the highest education levels; hundreds of thousands learned to read in the years following the initiation of the program.^[47][48] The government also supported families of soldiers, granted free hospitalization to everyone, and gave subsidies to farmers.^[49][50] Iraq created one of the most modernized public-health systems in the Middle East, earning Saddam an award from the UNESCO.

With the help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based Iraqi economy.^[51] Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries.^[52] The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries.^[53] Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas.^[54] Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in the countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants.^[55] This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion.^[55] He nationalised independent banks, eventually leaving the banking system insolvent due to inflation and bad loans.^[55]

Saddam focused on fostering loyalty to the Ba'athists in the rural areas.^[55] After nationalizing foreign oil interests, Saddam supervised the modernization of the countryside, mechanizing agriculture on a large scale, and distributing land to peasant farmers.^[55] The Ba'athists established farm cooperatives and the government also doubled expenditures for agricultural development in 1974–1975.^[55] Saddam's welfare programs were part of a combination of "carrot and stick" tactics to enhance support for Saddam.^[55] The state-owned banks were put under his thumb.^[55] Lending was based on cronyism.^[55]

In 1972, Saddam signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union. According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp, the treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States." In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians.

A peace treaty, which aimed to address the Shatt al-Arab dispute, was signed in 1975. Under the accord, Iraq was granted sovereignty over the eastern bank of the waterway, while Iran retained control over the western bank. The agreement also allowed for joint navigation and other provisions. The 1975 Algiers Agreement, also known as the Algiers Accord, was a significant diplomatic agreement signed between Iran and Iraq on March 6, 1975, to settle border disputes and improve bilateral relations. The agreement was mediated by the then-President of Algeria, Houari Boumediene. Prior to the Algiers Agreement, Iran and Iraq had been engaged in a long-standing territorial dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which serves as the border between the two countries. Algeria played a crucial role in mediating the negotiations between Iran and Iraq, with President Boumediene acting as the chief mediator.

The Algiers Agreement was based on the principles of territorial integrity, respect for sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs, and the peaceful resolution of disputes. The agreement established a new border line along the Shatt al-Arab, dividing the waterway equally between Iran and Iraq up to the midpoint. Iran made significant concessions in the agreement, including relinquishing its claims on the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab, which had been under Iranian control. Saddam Hussein aimed to secure Iraq's territorial claims, particularly regarding the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which had been a longstanding source of contention between Iran and Iraq.

Both parties recognized each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity, affirming the principle of non-aggression. The Algiers Agreement called for the restoration of full diplomatic relations between Iran and Iraq, including the exchange of ambassadors. The agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between the two countries, particularly in areas such as trade, transport, and joint development projects. The signing of the Algiers Agreement occurred during a period of relative stability in Iraq, with Saddam Hussein gradually consolidating power within the ruling Ba'ath Party. As Vice President, Saddam Hussein played a pivotal role in the negotiations leading up to the Algiers Agreement, representing Iraq's interests. Saddam Hussein's growing influence within the Iraqi government allowed him to shape Iraq's approach and stance during the negotiation process. Following the agreement, Iraq and Iran restored full diplomatic relations and exchanged ambassadors, representing a significant diplomatic breakthrough. The Algiers Agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between Iraq and Iran, particularly in areas like trade and joint development projects. This agreement, while ultimately unable to prevent future hostilities, remained a notable diplomatic achievement for Iraq during Saddam Hussein's early political career.

The Vietnam War was a major conflict in the Cold War, which lasted from 1955 to 1975. It was between the communist North Vietnam and American supported South Vietnam. During his rulle, Saddam maintained strong relations with the Soviet Union and other communist governed countries. The Vietnam War resulted loss of South Vietnam, supported by the United States and victory of communist governed North Vietnam. Both states merged to form one nation, which is today known as Vietnam and is controlled by the communist government.

Saddam provided loans and assistance for rebuilding the Vietnamese infrastructure and maintained strong trade relations with the country.^[56] Iraq supplied and millions of tones of oil to both South Vietnam and North Vietnam.^[57] Saddam did not demand any payment from Vietnam.^[58] Even he erased all debts from Vietnam.^[59] Although Saddam would be overthrown in the U.S invasion of Iraq in 2003, this move is still respected by future Iraqi leaders including his opponents.^[60] The Vietnamese government criticized the United States for initiating war against Iraq later.^[61]

The Vietnam War was a major conflict in the Cold War, which lasted from 1955 to 1975. It was between the communist North Vietnam and American supported South Vietnam. During his rulle, Saddam maintained strong relations with the Soviet Union and other communist governed countries. The Vietnam War resulted loss of South Vietnam, supported by the United States and victory of communist governed North Vietnam. Both states merged to form one nation, which is today known as Vietnam and is controlled by the communist government.

During his time in power, Saddam Hussein developed close relations with Vietnam and provided support and funding to the country both during and after the Vietnam War. These ties were characterized by mutual cooperation, shared ideological perspectives, and economic exchanges. Following the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, Saddam Hussein admired the resilience and determination of the Vietnamese people in their struggle against foreign intervention. He saw Vietnam as a fellow socialist nation that had successfully resisted Western imperialism. Saddam Hussein and the ruling Ba'ath Party in Iraq shared a common ideological framework with Vietnam's Communist Party. Both leaders emphasized anti-imperialism, socialism, and the pursuit of national liberation.

Saddam Hussein sought to strengthen economic ties with Vietnam. Iraq provided financial aid and technical assistance to Vietnam to support its post-war reconstruction efforts. This assistance included infrastructure development, agriculture, and healthcare projects. Iraq supplied military equipment and training to Vietnam during and after the war. This support aimed to enhance Vietnam's defense capabilities and assist in rebuilding its armed forces. Saddam Hussein expressed political support for Vietnam's territorial integrity and sovereignty. He condemned any foreign interference in Vietnam's internal affairs and advocated for peaceful resolutions to regional conflicts.

Saddam Hussein's government provided humanitarian assistance to Vietnam, particularly during times of natural disasters. Iraq sent relief supplies and financial aid to support Vietnam's recovery efforts. Despite the political changes and conflicts that followed Saddam Hussein's downfall, Iraq and Vietnam maintained diplomatic relations. The depth of the historical ties formed during Saddam's era helped sustain some level of cooperation between the two countries. Saddam provided loans and assistance for rebuilding the Vietnamese infrastructure and maintained strong trade relations with the country.^[56] Iraq supplied and millions of tones of oil to both South Vietnam and North Vietnam.^[57] Saddam did not demand any payment from Vietnam.^[58] Even he erased all debts from Vietnam.^[59] Although Saddam would be overthrown in the U.S invasion of Iraq in 2003, this move is still respected by future Iraqi leaders including his opponents.^[60] The Vietnamese government criticized the United States for initiating war against Iraq later.^[61]

Iraq under Saddam was a relatively prosperous, secular society. It had the highest number of female university graduates in the Middle East, and the highest percentage of paved roads. From beginning of his vice presidency itself, Iraq began emerging as a powerful and rich country in the Middle East and the Arab world. Infrastructure development continued in Iraq, with construction of roads, bridges and other transport facilities.^[62][63] Saddam built various palaces across the country for his personal use, which later became a popular tourist spot after his fall.^[64] Iraq became a powerful country with a well-equipped army.^[65]

The major instruments for accomplishing this control were the paramilitary and police organizations. Beginning in 1974, Taha Yassin Ramadan (himself a Kurdish Ba'athist), a close associate of Saddam, commanded the People's Army, which had responsibility for internal security. As the Ba'ath Party's paramilitary, the People's Army acted as a counterweight against any coup attempts by the regular armed forces. In addition to the People's Army, the Department of General Intelligence was the most notorious arm of the state-security system, feared for its use of torture and assassination. Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, Saddam's younger half-brother, commanded Mukhabarat. Foreign observers believed that from 1982 this department operated both at home and abroad in its mission to seek out and eliminate Saddam's perceived opponents.

Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (Dawa and SCIRI) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents.

An Iraqi man, while speaking to Al Jazeera Media Network, recorded saying: “Iraq under Saddam had global influence, a developed economy, strong dinar [local currency], welfare, housing, health, education, bridges, roads, dams, airports, self-sufficiency and a respected passport,” said Tawfiq. “Iraqis remember that and wish to go back”.^[66] The Iran—Iraq war delayed the opening of Baghdad Airport. However in 1981, the airport for Baghdad was opened, which was named as "Saddam International Airport". It became the largest airport in the country. In 1987, the Iraqi Revolution Command Council passed a resolution ordered by Saddam, which established four universities; the University of Al-Qadisiyah, the University of Kufa, the University of Tikrit, and the University of Anbar.

Saddam Hussein led a massive construction of Babylon, which promoted tourism.^[67] Following invasion of Kuwait and initiating the Gulf War, Iraq was sanctioned by the UN, which caused economic decline. In 1995, then U.S. president Bill Clinton introduced Oil-for-Food Programme, in which Iraq sold oil on the world market in exchange for humanitarian needs. The program was accepted by the Ba'athist government in 1996. By 1995, GDP of Iraq dropped to US$9 billion from US$44.36 billion in 1990. Iraq had lost around US$170 billion of oil revenues. The economy of Iraq improved in 2000, as its GDP increased to U$23.73 billion by 2000

Saddam Hussein also took steps to promote women's rights within Iraq. By the late 1970s, women in Iraq held significant roles in society, representing 46% of all teachers, 29% of all doctors, 46% of all dentist and 70% of all pharmacists. These advancements signaled progress in women's participation in various professional fields.^{[citation needed]}

Iraq under Saddam Hussein was known for religious tolerance, as different religious minorities coexisted peacefully.^[68] The Ba'athist government led by Saddam Hussein was a secular based.^[69] His government was noted for granting freedom of worship to all religions.^[70] In the Persian Gulf, Iraq was the only secular country and granted freedom of worship to people of all religions.^[71] Involvement of Iraq in wars during Saddam caused persecution of these community, specially during the Iraq War, many of the Christians and Jews of Iraq fled.^[72] Saddam led a secular progressive regime that kept the Wahhabi and Salafi extremist ideology of Al-Qaeda from taking root in the country.^[73] The country was free of any sectarian violence or civil disorder.^[74] The Ba'athist ideology followed by Saddam, was founded by Michel Aflaq, who was a Syrian Christian.^[75]

During his tenure, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq, highlighting the country's diverse religious landscape.^[76][77][78] Tariq Aziz, who was a Chaldean, held various political positions in the Ba'athist government, a friend of him and was a close advisor to Saddam Hussein.^[79] Due to close relations with Chaldeans, Saddam donated heavy amount to Chaldean churches and institutions across the United States, despite having hostile relations.^[80][81] After fall of his government in 2003, Christians in Iraq faced persecution.^[82]

During Saddam's rule, the Jews were treated fairly.^[83][84] They were among the various religious minority groups in the country and had the freedom to practice their religion.^[85][86][87] He also allowed immigration of Iraqi Jews.^[88] By 1974 there were only 280 Jews left and the tension eased.^[88][89] His government even helped restore the Meir Taweig Synagogue about ten years before he was ousted.^[90] An incident took place on 4 October 1998, when a Palestinian man opened fire, killing four people including two Jews.^[91] Following the arrest of Palestinian perpetrator, the Iraqi government pledged to ensure prompt justice.^[92] As a precautionary measure, police guards were stationed at the synagogue, and the Iraqi Cabinet released a statement denouncing the shooting incident.^[92] The Cabinet emphasized that the Jewish community in Iraq are Iraqis that should not be associated with Zionist activities aimed at disrupting the political, economic, social, and health security of Arab countries.^[93] Ezekiel's Tomb, a Jewish site was protected by Ba'ath security forces.^[94][95]

Saddam was recognized for safeguarding the Mandaean minority in Iraq.^[96] with Mandaeans being given state protection under Saddam Hussein, Saddam Hussein also vowed to construct temples for the Mandaeans, with Saddam quoting "Iraqis have religious freedom, whether they are Muslims, Christians or Sabaeans",^[97] Mandaeans were some of the best goldsmiths and jewelers in Iraq, with Saddam Hussein's personal jeweler being of Mandaean background. However, after his regime's downfall, Mandaeans faced severe persecution, and constant kidnappings, and often expressed that they were better under Saddam's rule.^[98]

Days after the invasion of Kuwait, the international community imposed economic sanctions against Iraq and implemented a total embargo on the country. It caused severe economic damage to the country. Though the Oil-for-food programme was introduced much earlier, but the government did not accept it earlier. Although Saddam managed to live his life comfortably, but the Iraqi public was suffering. Due to these sanctions, even the closest allies of Saddam's government couldn't maintained trade relations with Iraq, including India.

In initial days of the war, Jordan maintained relations with Iraq and then king of Jordan Hussein bin Talal, positioned himself as a potential mediator. This moved caused mass expulsions of Jordanians from Saudi Arabia. Later Jordan participated in the international sanctions against Iraq. The Iraqi economy rapidly decline.

Saddam's government accpeted the Oil-for-food programme in 1996, which allowed Iraq to export oil in exhchange of basic needs for ordinary Iraqi citizens, without fueling the government's military power. By 2000, economy of Iraq showed signs of modest growth and improvment.^[99]

In 1979, Iran's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and his Pahlavi dynasty was overthrown in the Islamic Revolution led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.^[100][101] This led to the establishment of an Islamic republic and the spread of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam, which worried Saddam Hussein in Iraq. As Iraq's majority is Shia Muslim and the country is also home to holy sites of Shia Islam, located in the cities of Najaf and Karbala.

Saddam and Khomeini had a longstanding rivalry, and Khomeini's presence in Iraq fueled tensions.^[102] When Khomeini began encouraging Iraqi Shi'ites to overthrow Saddam, Saddam expelled him to France.^[103] However, after Khomeini gained power in Iran, skirmishes over the Shatt al-Arab waterway led to increased tensions between Iraq and Iran. Despite publicly advocating for peaceful relations, Saddam privately revealed his intention to invade and occupy a significant part of Iran. He also sought support from the US and Western nations to topple the Islamic government in Iran.

In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, starting with an attack on Tehran's Mehrabad Airport and the seizure of Khuzestan, an oil-rich region declared as a new province of Iraq.^[104] Supported by Arab states, the US, and Europe, Saddam Hussein positioned himself as the defender of the Arab world against revolutionary Iran.^[105] Despite international law violations and the use of chemical warfare, Iraq received economic and military support.^[106] Initially, Iraq made gains but faced losses from Iran's human wave attacks. In 1982, Iraq found itself on the defensive and sought ways to end the war. Amid discussions, Saddam considered stepping down temporarily, but later sacked and arrested Health Minister Dr. Riyadh Ibrahim, who had suggested the idea. Gruesomely, pieces of Ibrahim's dismembered body were delivered to his wife.

During the Iraq-Iran war, Iraq faced a prolonged and destructive war of attrition. They used chemical weapons against Iranian and Kurdish forces, utilizing materials and technology supplied by Western companies. The US provided satellite photos and removed Iraq from the list of State Sponsors of Terrorism, aiming to support Iraq's war efforts. The Soviet Union, France, and China were major arms suppliers to Iraq. Saddam sought financial and political support from other Arab governments due to damage to Iraq's oil industry.

The war persisted despite calls for a ceasefire by the UN Security Council, and it finally ended on August 20, 1988. The eight-year war between Iraq and Iran ended in a stalemate, with estimates of casualties ranging from 1 to 2 million. Both sides suffered significant losses, but Iran's were greater. The war left the southern oil-rich region in ruins and the borders largely unchanged. Saddam Hussein borrowed billions of dollars from Arab states and other sources to fund the war, but this strategy backfired, as it boosted Islamic radicalism and created tensions within Iraq. After the war, Saddam sought funds for postwar reconstruction.

In July 1982, a group of Shiite militants attempted to assassinate Saddam Hussein during a visit to the town of Dujail.^[107] The attack, which involved gunfire aimed at Saddam's motorcade, failed to kill him but resulted in the death of several members of his security detail.^[108] In response to the assassination attempt, Saddam launched a campaign of brutal retribution against the residents of Dujail.^[109] The town was subjected to a period of intense repression and violence as the regime sought to quash any dissent and deter future challenges to Saddam's rule.^[110] The Iraqi security forces, under the command of Saddam's regime, conducted mass arrests in Dujail following the failed assassination attempt.^[111] Those suspected of involvement or having any connection to the attack were targeted, as well as their families.^[112] Many detainees were subjected to severe torture, including beatings, electric shocks, and other forms of physical and psychological abuse.^[113] To extract confessions, detainees in Dujail were subjected to extreme torture methods.^[114] These included hanging by the limbs, burning with hot irons, and being submerged in sewage water.^[115] Many detainees, under duress, confessed to crimes they did not commit.

Saddam Hussein personally oversaw the proceedings of the Revolutionary Court established to try those accused in the Dujail case.^[116] The court operated without regard for due process, fair trial standards, or the presumption of innocence.^[117] Defendants were denied legal representation, and the court relied heavily on coerced confessions as evidence.^[118] In the aftermath of the trials, the Revolutionary Court handed down a series of harsh sentences, including death penalties.^[119] In total, over 140 individuals were executed in relation to the Dujail massacre.^[120] Some of those executed were as young as 11 years old. The retribution extended beyond those directly involved in the assassination attempt.^[120] The regime implemented a policy of collective punishment, targeting entire families and displacing them from their homes.^[120] Many properties were destroyed or confiscated, and families were forced to live in exile or in dire conditions.^[120] The Dujail massacre had a devastating impact on the town and its residents.^[121] Many families were left without their breadwinners, and the community was subjected to ongoing surveillance and repression by the regime's security apparatus.^[121]

The international community strongly condemned the Dujail massacre and the human rights abuses committed by Saddam Hussein's regime.^[121] Organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch documented the atrocities and called for justice.^[121] The legacy of the Dujail massacre continued to haunt the survivors and the wider community.^[121] The physical and psychological trauma inflicted on the victims, as well as the loss of loved ones, had long-lasting effects on their lives and well-being.^[121] Following the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003, in 2006, he faced trial in Iraq for crimes against humanity, including the massacre and sentenced to death.^[121]

The Anfal campaign was led by Saddam's government and headed by Ali Hassan al-Majid. It was planned to suppress Kurdish rebels' activities. But Kurdish civilians also became victim of the campaign. It is described as a genocidal campaign conducted during the Iran-Iraq War against the Kurdish people and various other ethnic groups in the Kurdish regions of Iraq.^[122] The campaign, which took place between 1986 and 1989, derived its name from Qur'anic chapter 8 (al-ʾanfāl), which was used as a code name by the former Iraqi Ba'athist administration for a series of attacks.^[123]

The primary targets of the Anfal campaign were the peshmerga rebels and the predominantly Kurdish civilian population residing in rural areas of Northern Iraq.^[124] However, the campaign also targeted other ethnic groups such as the Shabaks, Yazidis, Assyrians, Turkoman people, and Mandaeans.^{[125][126][127]} Many villages belonging to these groups were destroyed, and they suffered significant casualties and displacement as a result.^[128] The death toll from the Anfal campaign remains a subject of debate.^[129] Human Rights Watch estimates that between 50,000 and 100,000 people were killed, while some Kurdish sources suggest that the number may be higher, estimating that 182,000 Kurds lost their lives during the campaign.^[130] The atrocities committed during the Anfal campaign included mass executions, forced disappearances, torture, and the use of chemical weapons.

One of the most notorious incidents associated with the Anfal campaign is the Halabja massacre.^[131] On 16 March 1988, the city of Halabja, predominantly inhabited by Kurds, was subjected to a devastating chemical attack.^{[132][133][134]} The Iraqi forces utilized a combination of mustard gas and nerve agents, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 3,200 to 5,000 people and injuring 7,000 to 10,000 more, mostly civilians.^[135] The attack was part of the broader Anfal campaign and aimed to reassert central control over the Kurdish population and defeat the Kurdish peshmerga forces.^{[136][137][138]} In the aftermath of the Halabja massacre, there were conflicting narratives regarding responsibility.^[139] The U.S. State Department initially held the position that Iran was partially to blame for the attack.^[140] A study by the Defense Intelligence Agency also attributed responsibility to Iran. However, it is widely accepted today that Iraq was the perpetrator of the Halabja massacre. This assessment was subsequently used by the Central Intelligence Agency for much of the early 1990s.^[141] Despite this, few observers today doubt that it was Iraq that executed the Halabja massacre.^[142]

After capture, when Saddam and his people were on trial, they denied that they were intended to target Kurdish civilians.^[143] During Saddam Hussein's trial for the Anfal campaign, two co-defendants, Sultan Hashim al-Tai and Sabir al-Douri, presented their explanations to the court.^[143] They argued that the Iraqi military did not intentionally target Kurdish civilians but instead focused on Iranian troops and Kurdish rebels who were fighting alongside them.^[143] Al-Tai, the commander of the Anfal task force, emphasized that their objective was to combat an organized armed army, not civilians.^[143] Al-Douri, the director of military intelligence, claimed that their actions were necessary to clear northern Iraq of Iranian troops and to protect Baghdad from potential flooding if nearby dams were destroyed.^[143] Both defendants asserted that civilians in the Anfal region had been relocated to safe areas, including the city of Kirkuk.^[143] They maintained that they acted in defense of their country and denied any guilt, stating that they implemented their orders precisely and sincerely without turning a blind eye to any violations.^[143]

The end of the war with Iran heightened tensions between Iraq and Kuwait. Saddam demanded that Kuwait waive Iraq's $30 billion war debt, but they refused.^[144] Disputes over oil production and prices further strained relations, as Kuwait refused to cut production, keeping prices low while Iraq needed high prices to repay its debt.^[145] Saddam claimed that Kuwait was historically part of Iraq, fueling nationalist sentiments.^[146] The significant oil reserves in both countries added to the tensions.^[147] Saddam deployed troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border.^[148]

As tensions escalated between Iraq and Kuwait, Saddam Hussein received conflicting information about how the US would respond to a potential invasion.^[149] The US had previously cultivated a relationship with Iraq, providing significant assistance, including financial aid.^[150] In April 1990, Saddam threatened to use chemical weapons against Israel if it took action against Iraq.^[151] He also criticized US support for Israel and warned against policies that undermined Arab interests.^[152] In response, the US deployed warplanes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf.^[153]

During an emergency meeting on July 25, 1990, between the US ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, and Saddam Hussein, tensions were high.^[154] Saddam criticized American policy towards Kuwait and the UAE, expressing concerns about their disregard for Iraq's rights.^[155] He also warned that Iraq could cause harm if pressured. Glaspie, in response, acknowledged Iraq's need for funds and expressed a lack of opinion on Arab-Arab conflicts.^[156] However, she expressed concern about Iraq's deployment of troops and perceived aggression towards Kuwait.^[157][158] Saddam mentioned attempting negotiations with Kuwait but emphasized that Iraq would not accept defeat.^[159]

US officials tried to maintain a conciliatory approach with Iraq, expressing a desire to avoid the use of force but refraining from taking a position on the Iraq-Kuwait boundary dispute. However, Saddam Hussein's troops invaded Kuwait after failed negotiations. As tensions escalated, the Soviet Union, led by Mikhail Gorbachev, strengthened its military relationship with Saddam, providing military advisers, arms, and aid.

On August 2, 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, sparking an international crisis.^[160] He initially claimed assistance to "Kuwaiti revolutionaries".^{[161][160][162]} On August 4, an Iraqi-backed "the Provisional Government of Free Kuwait" was proclaimed, but lacked legitimacy and support.^[163] This led to an announcement of a "merger" between the two countries on August 8.^[164] Kuwait formally became the 19th Governorate of Iraq on August 28, following the invasion. Saddam's actions occurred just two years after the 1988 Iraq and Iran truce.^[162] He overran Kuwait, confronting his Gulf neighbors in the name of Arab nationalism and Islam.^[165] When asked why he invaded Kuwait, Saddam first claimed it was Iraq's rightful 19th province. Later, he stated, "When I get something into my head I act. That's just the way I am".^[166] Saddam had the means to pursue military aggression due to the funds poured into Iraq by Kuwait and the Gulf states. He also had access to weapons and technology provided by the Soviet Union, Germany, and France.^[167]

In addition to economic disputes, an insulting exchange between the Kuwaiti emir and the Iraqi foreign minister played a decisive role in triggering the invasion.^[168] Saddam claimed that the emir stated his intention to ruin Iraq financially, turning "every Iraqi woman into a $10 prostitute".^[169] Before the invasion, Saddam shipped 100 new Mercedes 200 Series cars to top editors in Egypt and Jordan.^[170] He reportedly offered Egypt's President Hosni Mubarak 50 million dollars in cash, ostensibly for grain, just two days before the attacks.^[171] US President George H. W. Bush responded cautiously initially, considering Kuwait's previous hostility towards Israel and its friendly relations with the Soviets.^[172][173] However, concerns about stability in the region, the world economy, and British interests influenced his stance.^[174] Cooperation between the US and the Soviet Union led to the passage of UN resolutions setting a deadline for Iraq to leave Kuwait.^[175] The fear of Iraqi retaliation against Saudi Arabia, a key US ally, prompted a deployment of troops along the Saudi border with Kuwait and Iraq.^[176] During the invasion, Saddam's officers looted Kuwait, even taking the marble from its palaces for Saddam's personal use.^[177] In 1991, Saddam ordered firing of scud missiles towards Israel. Later Saddam agreed to pay US$74 million in compensate to Israel, which was borrowed from the amount of oil-for-food program. During the war, missiles were also fired in cities of Saudi Arabia.

Saddam Hussein ignored the Security Council deadline, leading to a US-led coalition launching missile and aerial attacks on Iraq starting on January 16, 1991.^[178] Israel refrained from retaliating to maintain the coalition.^[179] The coalition's ground forces, primarily US and British divisions, expelled Saddam's army from Kuwait in February 1991 and occupied southern Iraq.^[180] On March 6, 1991, President Bush announced the vision of a "new world order" where diverse nations unite for peace, security, freedom, and the rule of law.^[181] The Iraqi army was unable to match the coalition's superior forces and air support. Thousands of Iraqis were taken prisoner, and casualties exceeded 85,000. As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to dismantle chemical and biological weapons and allow UN inspections. Trade sanctions remained until Iraq fully complied. Saddam publicly claimed victory at the end of the war.^[182]

After the end of the 1990–1991 war, Iraqi Shia and Kurds led uprising against Saddam's regime in northern Iraq. The

In August 2000, Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez made a visit to Iraq and met Saddam.^[183] He was first leader of a foreign state to visit the country, since the 1990–1991 Gulf War.^[184] His meeting with Saddam was criticized by the United States, who is a major importer of Venezuela's oil.^[184] During his tour to invite the leaders of the 10 OPEC member states to a summit the following month, Chávez expressed that he had engaged in "fruitful" discussions with Saddam regarding the future role of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and the defense of reasonable oil prices.^[184] Chávez emphasized the significance of bilateral cooperation between their nations in these matters.^[184] The discussions between Chávez and Saddam took place in the past, during a period when both leaders were active.^[184] Chávez sought to strengthen ties and foster collaboration among OPEC member states, focusing on the organization's future trajectory and the importance of maintaining oil prices at a reasonable level.^[184] The aim was to ensure stability and fairness in the global oil market.^[184]

Saddam continued to work on Republican Guard and Fedayeen Saddam, which was supervised by his younger son Qusay Hussein.^[185] In October 2000, Saddam was also visited by then Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi's daughter Ayesha Gaddafi.^[186] Saddam later decided to use Euro, instead of Dollars for Iraqi oil.^[187] Almost all of Iraq's oil exports under the United Nations oil-for-food program were paid in euros since 2001.^[187] Approximately 26 billion euros (£17.4bn) was paid for 3.3 billion barrels of oil into an escrow account in New York.^[187] Internally Saddam continued authoritarian way of governance and suppressed political opponents.^[188] Between October and November 2000 Saddam led volunteer's campaign in solidarity with the Palestinians during the second intifada.^[189] Diplomatic isloation of Iraq with Arab states were disappearing gradually.^[190] On 25 April 2001, the British government started investigation on alleged war crimes done by Saddam.^[191] On 28 April 2001, Saddam celebrated his birthday, in form of a mega event.^[192]

Following month Saddam was chosen as party general secretary at the Baath congress in Baghdad, with every delegate in the hall rising to their feet.^[193] However, the Baath's 18-member executive, known as the Iraqi Regional Command, was selected through a secret ballot.^[193] The state television reported that 24 candidates stood, and eight new members were elected.^[193] Among them was Qusay, Saddam's younger son.^[193] Despite holding no high position in the Baath or government, Uday had long been considered the likely successor to his father.^[193] This situation resembled Syria, where Bashar al–Assad succeeded his father as president of the country the previous July, despite not previously holding a high position in the party or government.^[193] Saddam commenced the Baghdad party meeting with a speech advising the more than 300 delegates on how to vote.^[193] After the speech, the elections took place.^[193] Another surprise was the election of Huda Saleh Mehdi Ammash, the first woman to win a seat on the party executive.^[193] Saddam had recently encouraged women to play a greater role in Iraq.^[193] The deputy secretary general of the command, Izzat Ibrahim, was re-elected, and according to the constitution, he would become the interim president in the event of Saddam's sudden death.^[193] Among those who lost their executive seats was the deputy prime minister, Mohammed Hamza al-Zubaidi.^[193]

Russian president Vladimir Putin sent a message to Saddam, promoting diplomatic relations between Iraq and Russia.^[194] Saddam also invited Kurds to the negotiation table.^[195]

Saddam was widely known for his pro-Palestinian stance and anti-Zionism. He even threatend to "burn half of Israel".

The first Iraqi nuclear reactor was named by the French "Osirak". Osirak was destroyed on 7 June 1981^[196] by an Israeli air strike (Operation Opera). Saddam Hussein was widely known for his commitment to the Palestinian cause and his anti-Israel stance. However, the official position of Ba'athist Iraq on the conflict was that the future of Iraq's relation with Israel would be determined by the solution accepted by the Palestinians. In 1982, Saddam said to then U.S. congressman:^[197]

Existence of an independent Palestinian state accepted by the Palestinians, and it is also necessary to have a state of security for the Israelis. No single Arab official includes in his policy now the so-called destruction of Israel or wiping it out of existence, but there is not one Arab who believes in coexistence with an aggressive and expansionist entity.

— Saddam Hussein

On the eve of Christmas of 2000 Saddam wrote a letter, Saddam wrote a letter encouraging Muslims and Christians to rebel against "Zionist entity".^[198] Saddam also sent amount of oil revenue to support Palestinian uprising against Israel. In December 2001 Saddam called on Arab leader to a meeting, chosen to be held in Mecca and discussing the issue of Palestinians in the second intifada.^[199]

The beginning of new millennium marked improvement of situations in Iraq. Syria participated against Iraq in both the Iran–Iraq War and the Gulf War. After Hafez's death, his son Bashar al-Assad began improving relations with

Egypt's relations with Iraq deteriorated, after Anwar Sadat's peace treaty with Israel. In 1978, Baghdad hosted an Arab league summit which condemned the Camp David Accords and suspended Egypt's membership from the Arab League, until it was renewed during the presidency of Hosni Mubarak, with whom later Saddam formed Arab Cooperation Council, as a counterpart to Gulf Cooperation Council. It also consisted of Yemen Arab Republic and Jordan, represented by their respective leaders Ali Abdullah Saleh and Hussein bin Talal. Just like Iraq, Syria is also a Ba'athist country, which had strong relations. The relations between Iraq and Syria tensed, when Syria supported Iran in the 1980–1988 war.

The 1991 war caused condemnation of invasion by a majority of the Arab countries. Palestine, Yemen and Jordan supported Saddam in the war. While King Hussein of Jordan also put efforts to mediate the war. These countries' support for Saddam led expulsion of their people from the lands of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Majority of the Arab countries opposed invasion of Kuwait and supported the coalition forces which defeated the Iraqi forces. However, the invasion of Iraq was condemned by the Arab countries.

Saddam Hussein developed strong relations with Vietnam. During the era of Cold War, the Vietnam War was a major conflict from 1955 to 1975 between the American supported South Vietnam and pro–communist North Vietnam. Saddam provided support to Vietnam after the war. Not only did he provide assistance, loans and oil but he didn't demand any payment in return for it and even erased all debts that Vietnam owed. Saddam would be overthrown in 2003. Though this move of Saddam is respected even by his opponents, who became leader of Iraq in future.

Saddam was a strong supporter of Palestinian cause and developed an anti-Israel stance. He also threatend to "burn Israel". However, the official position of his government was "future relations of Israel will be determined based on the solutions accepted by Palestinians, which is still the official position of current Iraqi government. During the time Iran—Iraq war, Saddam reduced his anti-Israel stance. During the Gulf War, Saddam presented a peace offer, which offered peace with Israel and withdrawal of Iraqi army from Kuwait, once Israel will relinquish from the Palestinian territories of the Gaza Strip, the West Bank and East Jerusalem and Syrian territory of the Golan Heights.

The United States became a close ally of Saddam during his war with Iran. As the United States provided military and financial assistance to Iraq, even including chemical weapons. However, conditions with the United States deteriorated after increasing tensions between Iraq and Kuwait. Relations between Iraq and the United States became worse after the 1991 war. Saddam later adopted an anti-American stance, due to its support to Israel.

The Kurdish Agreement of 1970, also known as the March Manifesto, was an important political agreement reached between the Iraqi government and Kurdish rebel groups led by Mustafa Barzani. The agreement aimed to address the longstanding grievances of the Kurdish population in Iraq, particularly regarding autonomy and political representation.

During the negotiations and implementation of the Kurdish Agreement, Saddam Hussein was a key figure in the Iraqi government. Saddam Hussein played a significant role in the negotiations between the Iraqi government and the Kurdish rebel groups. He represented the government's interests and worked towards finding a resolution to the Kurdish insurgency that had been ongoing since the 1960s.

The Kurdish Agreement granted a degree of autonomy to the Kurdish region in northern Iraq, known as Iraqi Kurdistan. It included provisions for the recognition of Kurdish language and culture, the incorporation of Kurdish political representation within the Iraqi government, and the establishment of a Kurdish regional administration.

Despite the initial optimism surrounding the Kurdish Agreement, its implementation faced significant challenges. Disputes arose over issues such as the distribution of power, revenue sharing, and the demarcation of the autonomous Kurdish region. These challenges strained the relationship between the Iraqi government and Kurdish authorities and eventually led to the collapse of the agreement in 1974. The breakdown of the Kurdish Agreement resulted in a renewed armed conflict between the Iraqi government and Kurdish rebel groups, including the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led by Mustafa Barzani. The conflict continued until a ceasefire was established in 1975, but tensions between the Iraqi government and Kurdish groups persisted for many years.

Saddam Hussein played a significant role in supporting Egypt and Syria, who were the main Arab belligerents in the war against Israel.^[200] He provided both political and military assistance to these countries during the conflict.^[201] Iraq provided financial assistance to support the war efforts of Egypt and Syria.^[202] The exact amount of financial aid is not widely documented, but it aimed to assist with the procurement of military equipment and other necessities for the Arab armies.^[203]

On the military front, Iraq sent a contingent of troops and military equipment to support Syria. The Iraqi forces fought alongside Syrian forces in the Golan Heights against Israeli forces.^[204] Saddam Hussein's decision to send troops was driven by his desire to position Iraq as a leading Arab nation and bolster his own standing within the Arab world.^[205] Around 18,000 men and several hundred tanks from Iraq was deployed in the central Golan.^[206]

Iraq participated in the 1973 oil embargo, also known as the Arab oil embargo.^[207] The embargo was a response by several Arab oil-producing countries to the United States' support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War, which was fought between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria.^[208] The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), which included Iraq, decided to impose an oil embargo on countries that supported Israel.^[209] The embargo aimed to exert economic and political pressure on those countries by reducing or completely stopping the supply of oil.^[210]

Iraq, along with other OAPEC members such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, implemented the oil embargo.^[211][212] As a major oil producer, Iraq's participation in the embargo had a significant impact on global oil markets.^[213] The reduced oil supply resulted in a sharp increase in oil prices and created economic challenges for countries heavily dependent on oil imports and increased worth of Iraq and other Arab countries.^[214] The 1973 oil crises changed the landscape of oil industry in the Arab world and the Middle East forever. After 1973 oil crisis, France followed pro-Arab foreign policy and developed a strong relation with the Arab world, specially Iraq. Saddam regime developed a strong relation with France. Since then, France is closest ally of Iraq among the European countries.

The Iraqi government, led by President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and his deputy, Saddam Hussein, agreed to a peace treaty with the Kurdish rebels in 1970. The treaty, known as the March Manifesto, promised limited autonomy for the Kurds in exchange for their disarmament. However, tensions persisted between the Iraqi government and the Kurdish groups, particularly the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led by Mustafa Barzani. Disputes over the implementation of the March Manifesto, control of oil-rich territories, and political power-sharing led to a breakdown of the agreement. At the same time, the Ba'athist government began an Arabization program in oil rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin.

In 1974, the Iraqi government launched a military offensive against the KDP-controlled areas in northern Iraq. The government forces, backed by heavy artillery and air power, aimed to suppress the Kurdish resistance and regain control over the region. The Kurdish insurgents, including the Peshmerga fighters, engaged in guerrilla warfare tactics and fought to defend their territories. The conflict escalated with both sides committing human rights abuses and atrocities against civilians. The Iraqi government used scorched-earth tactics, including the destruction of villages and displacement of thousands of Kurdish civilians. Chemical weapons were also reportedly used by the government forces during the conflict.

The war attracted international attention, with neighboring countries and major powers becoming involved. Iran, under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, supported the Kurdish insurgents as part of its regional ambitions and to exert pressure on the Iraqi government. The Shah provided military aid and a safe haven for the Kurdish leadership. The Second Iraqi-Kurdish War had a significant impact on the Kurdish population and the political landscape of Iraq. It further deepened mistrust between the Kurdish people and the Iraqi government, laying the groundwork for future conflicts and aspirations for an independent Kurdish state.

The Shatt al-Arab is a river that forms the boundary between Iraq and Iran.^[215] The dispute over the waterway began before Saddam Hussein's vice presidency during the time of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran.^[216] Shatt al-Arab is considered as an important channel for oil exports for both Iraq and Iran.^[217] In 1937, Iran and the newly independent Iraq signed a treaty to settle the dispute.^[218] During this period, Saddam Hussein was involved in negotiations and discussions related to the Shatt al-Arab dispute.^[219] The Iraqi government, under his leadership, maintained a firm stance on Iraq's territorial claims over the waterway.^[220]

The Iraqi government insisted on the implementation of the 1937 Algiers Agreement as the basis for resolving the dispute.^[221] The Algiers Agreement had established the border between Iran and Iraq along the Shatt al-Arab.^[222] However, the Shah of Iran abrogated the agreement in 1969, claiming the entire waterway should be under Iranian control.^[223][224] Saddam Hussein and the Iraqi government opposed the Shah's unilateral abrogation of the Algiers Agreement and sought to assert Iraq's rights over the Shatt al-Arab.^[225][226] They advocated for the restoration of the agreement and the recognition of Iraq's sovereignty over the waterway.^[227]

In 1969, Saddam stated "Iraq's dispute with Iran is in connection with Khuzestan, which is part of Iraq's soil and was annexed to Iran during foreign rule".^[228][229] Efforts were made to resolve the dispute diplomatically between Iraq and Iran during this period, but a permanent resolution was not achieved.^[230] Tensions continued to escalate, leading to increased military clashes and eventually the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War in 1980. The Algiers Accord, which aimed to address the Shatt al-Arab dispute, was signed in 1975.^[231] Under the accord, Iraq was granted sovereignty over the eastern bank of the waterway, while Iran retained control over the western bank. The agreement also allowed for joint navigation and other provisions.

A peace treaty, which aimed to address the Shatt al-Arab dispute, was signed in 1975.^[231] Under the accord, Iraq was granted sovereignty over the eastern bank of the waterway, while Iran retained control over the western bank.^[232] The agreement also allowed for joint navigation and other provisions.^[232] The 1975 Algiers Agreement, also known as the Algiers Accord, was a significant diplomatic agreement signed between Iran and Iraq on March 6, 1975, to settle border disputes and improve bilateral relations.^[232] The agreement was mediated by the then-President of Algeria, Houari Boumediene.^[232] Prior to the Algiers Agreement, Iran and Iraq had been engaged in a long-standing territorial dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which serves as the border between the two countries.^[232] Algeria played a crucial role in mediating the negotiations between Iran and Iraq, with President Boumediene acting as the chief mediator.^[232]

The Algiers Agreement was based on the principles of territorial integrity, respect for sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs, and the peaceful resolution of disputes.^[232] The agreement established a new border line along the Shatt al-Arab, dividing the waterway equally between Iran and Iraq up to the midpoint.^[232] Iran made significant concessions in the agreement, including relinquishing its claims on the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab, which had been under Iranian control.^[232] Saddam Hussein aimed to secure Iraq's territorial claims, particularly regarding the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which had been a longstanding source of contention between Iran and Iraq.^[232]

Both parties recognized each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity, affirming the principle of non-aggression.^[232] The Algiers Agreement called for the restoration of full diplomatic relations between Iran and Iraq, including the exchange of ambassadors.^[232] The agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between the two countries, particularly in areas such as trade, transport, and joint development projects.^[232] The signing of the Algiers Agreement occurred during a period of relative stability in Iraq, with Saddam Hussein gradually consolidating power within the ruling Ba'ath Party.^[232] As Vice President, Saddam Hussein played a pivotal role in the negotiations leading up to the Algiers Agreement, representing Iraq's interests.^[232] Saddam Hussein's growing influence within the Iraqi government allowed him to shape Iraq's approach and stance during the negotiation process.^[232] Following the agreement, Iraq and Iran restored full diplomatic relations and exchanged ambassadors, representing a significant diplomatic breakthrough.^[232] The Algiers Agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between Iraq and Iran, particularly in areas like trade and joint development projects.^[232] This agreement, while ultimately unable to prevent future hostilities, remained a notable diplomatic achievement for Iraq during Saddam's early political career.^[232]

In 1976, Saddam rose to the position of general in the Iraqi armed forces, and rapidly became the strongman of the government.^[233] As the ailing, elderly al-Bakr became unable to execute his duties, Saddam took on an increasingly prominent role as the face of the government both internally and externally.^[234] He soon became the architect of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations.^[235] He was the de facto leader of Iraq some years before he formally came to power in 1979.^[235]

He slowly began to consolidate his power over Iraq's government and the Ba'ath party.^[235] Relationships with fellow party members were carefully cultivated, and Saddam soon accumulated a powerful circle of support within the party.In 1979, al-Bakr started to make treaties with Syria, also under Ba'athist leadership, that would lead to unification between the two countries.^[235] Syrian President Hafiz al-Assad would become deputy leader in a union, and this would drive Saddam to obscurity.^[235] Saddam acted to secure his grip on power.^[235] He forced the ailing al-Bakr to resign on 16 July 1979, and formally assumed the presidency.^[235]

In 1979, Iran's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and his Pahlavi dynasty was overthrown in the Islamic Revolution led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.^[100][101] This led to the establishment of an Islamic republic and the spread of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam, which worried Saddam Hussein in Iraq. Only a few years ago, a dispute with Iran was solved by an agreement. Saddam feared that radical Islamic ideas—hostile to his secular rule—were rapidly spreading inside his country among the majority Shi'ite population. As that time Iraq, other than Muslims, was also home to many Christians, Yazidis and minority of Jews. The Ba'ath Party led by Saddam was a secular party.

Saddam and Khomeini had a longstanding rivalry, and Khomeini's presence in Iraq fueled tensions.^[102] When Khomeini began encouraging Iraqi Shi'ites to overthrow Saddam, Saddam expelled him to France.^[103] However, after Khomeini gained power in Iran, skirmishes over the Shatt al-Arab waterway led to increased tensions between Iraq and Iran. Despite publicly advocating for peaceful relations, Saddam privately revealed his intention to invade and occupy a significant part of Iran. He also sought support from the US and Western nations to topple the Islamic government in Iran.

In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, starting with an attack on Tehran's Mehrabad Airport and the seizure of Khuzestan, an oil-rich region declared as a new province of Iraq.^[104] Supported by Arab states, the US, and Europe, Saddam Hussein positioned himself as the defender of the Arab world against revolutionary Iran.^[105] Despite international law violations and the use of chemical warfare, Iraq received economic and military support.^[106] Initially, Iraq made gains but faced losses from Iran's human wave attacks. In 1982, Iraq found itself on the defensive and sought ways to end the war. Amid discussions, Saddam considered stepping down temporarily, but later sacked and arrested Health Minister Dr. Riyadh Ibrahim, who had suggested the idea. Gruesomely, pieces of Ibrahim's dismembered body were delivered to his wife.

During the Iraq-Iran war, Iraq faced a prolonged and destructive war of attrition. They used chemical weapons against Iranian and Kurdish forces, utilizing materials and technology supplied by Western companies. The US provided satellite photos and removed Iraq from the list of State Sponsors of Terrorism, aiming to support Iraq's war efforts. The Soviet Union, France, and China were major arms suppliers to Iraq. Saddam sought financial and political support from other Arab governments due to damage to Iraq's oil industry.

The war persisted despite calls for a ceasefire by the UN Security Council, and it finally ended on August 20, 1988. The eight-year war between Iraq and Iran ended in a stalemate, with estimates of casualties ranging from 1 to 2 million. Both sides suffered significant losses, but Iran's were greater. The war left the southern oil-rich region in ruins and the borders largely unchanged. Saddam Hussein borrowed billions of dollars from Arab states and other sources to fund the war, but this strategy backfired, as it boosted Islamic radicalism and created tensions within Iraq. After the war, Saddam sought funds for postwar reconstruction.

In July 1982, a group of Shiite militants attempted to assassinate Saddam Hussein during a visit to the town of Dujail.^[107] The attack, which involved gunfire aimed at Saddam's motorcade, failed to kill him but resulted in the death of several members of his security detail.^[108] In response to the assassination attempt, Saddam Hussein's regime launched a campaign of brutal retribution against the residents of Dujail.^[109] The town was subjected to a period of intense repression and violence as the regime sought to quash any dissent and deter future challenges to Saddam's rule.^[110] The Iraqi security forces, under the command of Saddam's regime, conducted mass arrests in Dujail following the failed assassination attempt.^[111] Those suspected of involvement or having any connection to the attack were targeted, as well as their families. Many detainees were subjected to severe torture, including beatings, electric shocks, and other forms of physical and psychological abuse. To extract confessions, detainees in Dujail were subjected to extreme torture methods. These included hanging by the limbs, burning with hot irons, and being submerged in sewage water. Many detainees, under duress, confessed to crimes they did not commit.

Saddam Hussein personally oversaw the proceedings of the Revolutionary Court established to try those accused in the Dujail case. The court operated without regard for due process, fair trial standards, or the presumption of innocence. Defendants were denied legal representation, and the court relied heavily on coerced confessions as evidence. In the aftermath of the trials, the Revolutionary Court handed down a series of harsh sentences, including death penalties. In total, over 140 individuals were executed in relation to the Dujail massacre. Some of those executed were as young as 11 years old. The retribution extended beyond those directly involved in the assassination attempt. The regime implemented a policy of collective punishment, targeting entire families and displacing them from their homes. Many properties were destroyed or confiscated, and families were forced to live in exile or in dire conditions. The Dujail massacre had a devastating impact on the town and its residents. Many families were left without their breadwinners, and the community was subjected to ongoing surveillance and repression by the regime's security apparatus.

The international community strongly condemned the Dujail massacre and the human rights abuses committed by Saddam Hussein's regime. Organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch documented the atrocities and called for justice. The legacy of the Dujail massacre continued to haunt the survivors and the wider community. The physical and psychological trauma inflicted on the victims, as well as the loss of loved ones, had long-lasting effects on their lives and well-being. Following the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime in 2003, efforts were made to hold him accountable for his crimes, including his involvement in the Dujail massacre. In 2006, he faced trial in Iraq for crimes against humanity, including the massacre. He was found guilty and sentenced to death.

The Anfal campaign, led by the government of Saddam Hussein and headed by Ali Hassan al-Majid, was a genocidal campaign conducted during the Iran-Iraq War against the Kurdish people and various other ethnic groups in the Kurdish regions of Iraq.^[122] The campaign, which took place between 1986 and 1989, derived its name from Qur'anic chapter 8 (al-ʾanfāl), which was used as a code name by the former Iraqi Ba'athist administration for a series of attacks.^[123]

The primary targets of the Anfal campaign were the peshmerga rebels and the predominantly Kurdish civilian population residing in rural areas of Northern Iraq.^[124] However, the campaign also targeted other ethnic groups such as the Shabaks, Yazidis, Assyrians, Turkoman people, and Mandaeans.^{[125][126][127]} Many villages belonging to these groups were destroyed, and they suffered significant casualties and displacement as a result.^[128] The death toll from the Anfal campaign remains a subject of debate.^[129] Human Rights Watch estimates that between 50,000 and 100,000 people were killed, while some Kurdish sources suggest that the number may be higher, estimating that 182,000 Kurds lost their lives during the campaign.^[130] The atrocities committed during the Anfal campaign included mass executions, forced disappearances, torture, and the use of chemical weapons.

One of the most notorious incidents associated with the Anfal campaign is the Halabja massacre.^[131] On 16 March 1988, the town of Halabja, predominantly inhabited by Kurds, was subjected to a devastating chemical attack.^{[132][133][134]} The Iraqi forces utilized a combination of mustard gas and nerve agents, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 3,200 to 5,000 people and injuring 7,000 to 10,000 more, mostly civilians.^[135] The attack was part of the broader Anfal campaign and aimed to reassert central control over the Kurdish population and defeat the Kurdish peshmerga forces.^{[136][137][138]} In the aftermath of the Halabja massacre, there were conflicting narratives regarding responsibility.^[139] The U.S. State Department initially held the position that Iran was partially to blame for the attack.^[140] A study by the Defense Intelligence Agency also attributed responsibility to Iran. However, it is widely accepted today that Iraq was the perpetrator of the Halabja massacre. This assessment was subsequently used by the Central Intelligence Agency for much of the early 1990s.^[141] Despite this, few observers today doubt that it was Iraq that executed the Halabja massacre.^[142]

After capture, when Saddam and his people were on trial, they denied that they were intended to target Kurdish civilians.^[143] During Saddam Hussein's trial for the Anfal campaign, two co-defendants, Sultan Hashim al-Tai and Sabir al-Douri, presented their explanations to the court.^[143] They argued that the Iraqi military did not intentionally target Kurdish civilians but instead focused on Iranian troops and Kurdish rebels who were fighting alongside them.^[143] Al-Tai, the commander of the Anfal task force, emphasized that their objective was to combat an organized armed army, not civilians.^[143] Al-Douri, the director of military intelligence, claimed that their actions were necessary to clear northern Iraq of Iranian troops and to protect Baghdad from potential flooding if nearby dams were destroyed.^[143] Both defendants asserted that civilians in the Anfal region had been relocated to safe areas, including the city of Kirkuk.^[143] They maintained that they acted in defense of their country and denied any guilt, stating that they implemented their orders precisely and sincerely without turning a blind eye to any violations.^[143]

The end of the war with Iran heightened tensions between Iraq and Kuwait. Saddam demanded that Kuwait waive Iraq's $30 billion war debt, but they refused.^[144] Disputes over oil production and prices further strained relations, as Kuwait refused to cut production, keeping prices low while Iraq needed high prices to repay its debt.^[145] Saddam claimed that Kuwait was historically part of Iraq, fueling nationalist sentiments.^[146] The significant oil reserves in both countries added to the tensions.^[147] Saddam deployed troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border.^[148]

As tensions escalated between Iraq and Kuwait, Saddam Hussein received conflicting information about how the US would respond to a potential invasion.^[149] The US had previously cultivated a relationship with Iraq, providing significant assistance, including financial aid.^[150] In April 1990, Saddam threatened to use chemical weapons against Israel if it took action against Iraq.^[151] He also criticized US support for Israel and warned against policies that undermined Arab interests.^[152] In response, the US deployed warplanes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf.^[153]

During an emergency meeting on July 25, 1990, between the US ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, and Saddam Hussein, tensions were high.^[154] Saddam criticized American policy towards Kuwait and the UAE, expressing concerns about their disregard for Iraq's rights.^[155] He also warned that Iraq could cause harm if pressured. Glaspie, in response, acknowledged Iraq's need for funds and expressed a lack of opinion on Arab-Arab conflicts.^[156] However, she expressed concern about Iraq's deployment of troops and perceived aggression towards Kuwait.^[157][158] Saddam mentioned attempting negotiations with Kuwait but emphasized that Iraq would not accept defeat.^[159]

US officials tried to maintain a conciliatory approach with Iraq, expressing a desire to avoid the use of force but refraining from taking a position on the Iraq-Kuwait boundary dispute. However, Saddam Hussein's troops invaded Kuwait after failed negotiations. As tensions escalated, the Soviet Union, led by Mikhail Gorbachev, strengthened its military relationship with Saddam, providing military advisers, arms, and aid.

On August 2, 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, sparking an international crisis.^[160] He initially claimed assistance to "Kuwaiti revolutionaries".^[161] On August 4, an Iraqi-backed "the Provisional Government of Free Kuwait" was proclaimed, but lacked legitimacy and support.^[163] This led to an announcement of a "merger" between the two countries on August 8.^[164] Kuwait formally became the 19th Governorate of Iraq on August 28, following the invasion. Saddam's actions occurred just two years after the 1988 Iraq and Iran truce.^[162] He overran Kuwait, confronting his Gulf neighbors in the name of Arab nationalism and Islam.^[165] When asked why he invaded Kuwait, Saddam first claimed it was Iraq's rightful 19th province. Later, he stated, "When I get something into my head I act. That's just the way I am".^[166] Saddam had the means to pursue military aggression due to the funds poured into Iraq by Kuwait and the Gulf states. He also had access to weapons and technology provided by the Soviet Union, Germany, and France.^[167]

In addition to economic disputes, an insulting exchange between the Kuwaiti emir and the Iraqi foreign minister played a decisive role in triggering the invasion.^[168] Saddam claimed that the emir stated his intention to ruin Iraq financially, turning "every Iraqi woman into a $10 prostitute".^[169] Before the invasion, Saddam shipped 100 new Mercedes 200 Series cars to top editors in Egypt and Jordan.^[170] He reportedly offered Egypt's President Hosni Mubarak 50 million dollars in cash, ostensibly for grain, just two days before the attacks.^[171] US President George H. W. Bush responded cautiously initially, considering Kuwait's previous hostility towards Israel and its friendly relations with the Soviets.^[172][173] However, concerns about stability in the region, the world economy, and British interests influenced his stance.^[174] Cooperation between the US and the Soviet Union led to the passage of UN resolutions setting a deadline for Iraq to leave Kuwait.^[175] The fear of Iraqi retaliation against Saudi Arabia, a key US ally, prompted a deployment of troops along the Saudi border with Kuwait and Iraq.^[176] During the invasion, Saddam's officers looted Kuwait, even taking the marble from its palaces for Saddam's personal use.^[177] In 1991, Saddam ordered firing of scud missiles towards Israel. Later Saddam agreed to pay US$74 million in compensate to Israel, which was borrowed from the amount of oil-for-food program. During the war, missiles were also fired in cities of Saudi Arabia.

Saddam Hussein ignored the Security Council deadline, leading to a US-led coalition launching missile and aerial attacks on Iraq starting on January 16, 1991.^[178] Israel refrained from retaliating to maintain the coalition.^[179] The coalition's ground forces, primarily US and British divisions, expelled Saddam's army from Kuwait in February 1991 and occupied southern Iraq.^[180] On March 6, 1991, President Bush announced the vision of a "new world order" where diverse nations unite for peace, security, freedom, and the rule of law.^[181] The Iraqi army was unable to match the coalition's superior forces and air support. Thousands of Iraqis were taken prisoner, and casualties exceeded 85,000. As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to dismantle chemical and biological weapons and allow UN inspections. Trade sanctions remained until Iraq fully complied. Saddam publicly claimed victory at the end of the war.^[182]

Iraq's ethnic and religious divisions, together with the brutality of the conflict that this had engendered, laid the groundwork for postwar rebellions. In the aftermath of the fighting, social and ethnic unrest among Shi'ite Muslims, Kurds, and dissident military units threatened the stability of Saddam's government. Uprisings erupted in the Kurdish north and Shi'a southern and central parts of Iraq, but were ruthlessly repressed. Uprisings in 1991 led to the death of 100,000–180,000 people, mostly civilians.^[236]

The US, which had urged Iraqis to rise up against Saddam, did nothing to assist the rebellions. The Iranians, despite the widespread Shi'ite rebellions, had no interest in provoking another war, while Turkey opposed any prospect of Kurdish independence, and the Saudis and other conservative Arab states feared an Iran-style Shi'ite revolution. Saddam, having survived the immediate crisis in the wake of defeat, was left firmly in control of Iraq, although the country never recovered either economically or militarily from the Gulf War.^[237]

The United Nations-placed sanctions against Iraq for invading Kuwait were not lifted, blocking Iraqi oil exports. During the late 1990s, the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.^{[238][239][240][241][242]} On 9 December 1996, Saddam's government accepted the Oil-for-Food Programme that the UN had first offered in 1992.

Following invasion of Kuwait and initiating the Gulf War, Iraq was sanctioned by the UN, which caused economic decline. In 1995, then U.S. president Bill Clinton introduced Oil-for-Food Programme, in which Iraq sold oil on the world market in exchange for humanitarian needs. The program was accepted by the Ba'athist government in 1996.^[243] By 1995, GDP of Iraq dropped to US$9 billion from US$44.36 billion in 1990. Iraq had lost around US$170 billion of oil revenues. The economy of Iraq improved in 2000, as its GDP increased to U$23.73 billion by 2000.^[244]

Relations between the US and Iraq remained tense following the Gulf War. The US launched a missile attack aimed at Iraq's intelligence headquarters in Baghdad 26 June 1993, citing evidence of repeated Iraqi violations of the "no fly zones" imposed after the Gulf War and for incursions into Kuwait. US officials continued to accuse Saddam of violating the terms of the Gulf War's cease fire, by developing weapons of mass destruction and other banned weaponry, and violating the UN-imposed sanctions.

Also during the 1990s, President Bill Clinton maintained sanctions and ordered air strikes in the "Iraqi no-fly zones" (Operation Desert Fox), in the hope that Saddam would be overthrown by political enemies inside Iraq. Western charges of Iraqi resistance to UN access to suspected weapons were the pretext for crises between 1997 and 1998, culminating in intensive US and British missile strikes on Iraq, 16–19 December 1998. After two years of intermittent activity, US and British warplanes struck harder at sites near Baghdad in February 2001. Former CIA case officer Robert Baer reports that he "tried to assassinate" Saddam in 1995,^[245] amid "a decade-long effort to encourage a military coup in Iraq."^[246]

In 2002, Austrian prosecutors investigated Saddam government's transactions with Fritz Edlinger that possibly violated Austrian money laundering and embargo regulations.^[247] Fritz Edlinger, president of the General Secretary of the Society for Austro-Arab relations (GÖAB) and a former member of Socialist International's Middle East Committee, was an outspoken supporter of Saddam Hussein. In 2005, an Austrian journalist revealed that Fritz Edlinger's GÖAB had received $100,000 from an Iraqi front company as well as donations from Austrian companies soliciting business in Iraq.^[248]

In 2002, a resolution sponsored by the European Union was adopted by the Commission for Human Rights, which stated that there had been no improvement in the human rights crisis in Iraq. The statement condemned President Saddam Hussein's government for its "systematic, widespread and extremely grave violations of human rights and international humanitarian law." The resolution demanded that Iraq immediately put an end to its "summary and arbitrary executions ... the use of rape as a political tool and all enforced and involuntary disappearances."^[249]

By late 1990s and early 2000, the economic condition of Iraq began improving. The oil revenue pick up pace. Iraq already suffered huge loses and was not ready to suffer again same loses. Although his relations with the U.S and the west remain hostile, but he had donated huge amount to charities of those countries. In 2001, shortly before George W. Bush took office, Saddam donated a huge amount to the poor peoples of America. In 1998, Russian envoy met Saddam Hussein.^[250] Saddam sought to solve Israeli-Palestinian conflict and address the Palestinian cause.^[251][252] In 2000, he had several secret meetings with the government officials of Israel, discussing the issues of refugees and status of Jerusalem.^[253] However during the second intifada, Iraq provided financial support to the families of Palestinian militants including suicide bombers.

On 31 December 2000, Saddam organized largest parade in Iraq, since the Gulf War.^[254] With close relations with France, Saddam met Roger Etchegaray.^[250] Saddam condemned the September 11 attacks.^[255] He replied personally to an email, sent by an American, where he condemn the attack and express sympathy for victims and their families.^[256][257] In 2000, Russian leaders made a visit to Iraq.^[250] Economy of Iraq began improving by 2000. In 2000, the GDP was increased to $23.73 billion. Between 1990 to 2000, as a result of the Gulf War and later sanction, economy of Iraq was severely affected.^[258]

Saddam became Vice President of Iraq and Vice-Chairman for the Revolutionary Command Council. Al-Bakr was president, but the government gradually came under Saddam's control. He became like a de facto leader of Iraq, where he took responsibility of handling economic situation, educational and healthcare aspects of the government. Saddam handled foreign affairs of Iraq and engaged in military operations and peace agreements

Saddam actively fostered the modernization of the Iraqi economy along with the creation of a strong security apparatus to prevent coups within the power structure and insurrections apart from it.^[259] Ever concerned with broadening his base of support among the diverse elements of Iraqi society and mobilizing mass support, he closely followed the administration of state welfare and development programs.^[260] At the center of this strategy was Iraq's oil. On 1 June 1972, Saddam oversaw the seizure of international oil interests, which, at the time, dominated the country's oil sector.^[261] A year later, world oil prices rose dramatically as a result of the 1973 energy crisis, and skyrocketing revenues enabled Saddam to expand his agenda.^[262] Saddam focused on fostering loyalty to the Ba'athists in the rural areas.^[263] After nationalizing foreign oil interests, Saddam supervised the modernization of the countryside, mechanizing agriculture on a large scale, and distributing land to peasant farmers.^[264][265] The Ba'athists established farm cooperatives and the government also doubled expenditures for agricultural development in 1974–1975.^[266][267] Saddam's welfare programs were part of a combination of "carrot and stick" tactics to enhance support for Saddam.^{[268][269][270]} The state-owned banks were put under his thumb. Lending was based on cronyism.^[271]

With the help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based Iraqi economy.^[272] Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries.^[273] The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries.^[274] Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas.^[275] Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in the countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants.^[276] This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion.^[277] He nationalised independent banks, eventually leaving the banking system insolvent due to inflation and bad loans.^[278] The state-owned banks were put under his thumb. Lending was based on cronyism.^[279]

Saddam Hussein also took steps to promote women's rights within Iraq. Women were given employment in Iraq. Saddam promoted education among women's society in Iraq. This efforts successfully implemented women's right in Iraq. By the late 1970s, women in Iraq held significant roles in society, representing 46% of all teachers, 29% of all doctors, 46% of all dentist and 70% of all pharmacists. These advancements signaled progress in women's participation in various professional fields.^[280]

The government also supported families of soldiers and gave subsidies to farmers. Saddam's government noted for repressing Turk and Kurdish revolts, sometimes subjected to be anti-Kurd or anti-Turk. However, Saddam maintained that he opposes only separatist movements being carried out by these groups. Saddam was noted for supporting Palestinian cause. Palestinian refugees who fled Iraq were granted equal rights, as other ordinary Iraqis. Overall it can be said that, they were treated as a normal citizen of the country and not like a refugee. Food rationing was a good system to save the poor from famine.

Iraq under Saddam Hussein was known for religious tolerance, as different religious minorities coexisted peacefully.^[68] The Ba'athist government led by Saddam Hussein was a secular based.^[69] His government was noted for granting freedom of worship to all religions.^[70] In the Persian Gulf, Iraq was the only secular country and granted freedom of worship to people of all religions.^[71] Involvement of Iraq in wars during Saddam caused persecution of these community, specially during the Iraq War, many of the Christians and Jews of Iraq fled.^[72] Saddam led a secular progressive regime that kept the Wahhabi and Salafi extremist ideology of Al-Qaeda from taking root in the country.^[73] The country was free of any sectarian violence or civil disorder.^[74] The Ba'athist ideology followed by Saddam, was founded by Michel Aflaq, who was a Syrian Christian.^[75]

During his tenure, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq, highlighting the country's diverse religious landscape.^[76][77][78] Tariq Aziz, who was a Chaldean, held various political positions in the Ba'athist government and was a close advisor to Saddam Hussein.^[79] Due to close relations with Chaldeans, Saddam donated heavy amount to Chaldean churches and institutions across the United States, despite having hostile relations.^[80] After fall of his government in 2003, Christians in Iraq faced persecution.^[82]

During Saddam Hussein's rule, the Jews were treated fairly.^[83][84] They were among the various religious minority groups in the country.^[87] They had the freedom to practice their religion.^[85][86] The Iraqi government even helped restore the Meir Taweig Synagogue about ten years before he was ousted.^[90] An incident took place on 4 October 1998, when a Palestinian man opened fire, killing four people including two Jews.^[91] Following the arrest of Palestinian perpetrator, the Iraqi government pledged to ensure prompt justice.^[92] As a precautionary measure, police guards were stationed at the synagogue, and the Iraqi Cabinet released a statement denouncing the shooting incident.^[92] The Cabinet emphasized that the Jewish community in Iraq are Iraqis that should not be associated with Zionist activities aimed at disrupting the political, economic, social, and health security of Arab countries.^[93] Ezekiel's Tomb, a Jewish site was protected by Ba'ath security forces.^[94]

Within just a few years, Iraq was providing social services that were unprecedented among Middle Eastern countries. Saddam established and controlled the "National Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy" and the campaign for "Compulsory Free Education in Iraq", and largely under his auspices, the government established universal free schooling up to the highest education levels; hundreds of thousands learned to read in the years following the initiation of the program.

The Iraqi people were the most educated population in the whole of the Arab world. Iraq had a higher University enrolment as a percentage of the total population than anywhere else in the Arab world. Iraq had more PHDs per capita than the rest of the Arab world combined. All children as a result went to school regardless of the gender of the child which is a big thing in that part of the world. Universal schooling including school meals, pens, pencils, paper, and of course the education was free for all Iraqis up until the highest levels of University education.

The government granted free hospitalization to everyone. Free healthcare services to every citizen of Iraq were provided by the government. Iraq created one of the most modernized public-health systems in the Middle East, earning Saddam an award from the UNESCO.^[281][282] After the Gulf War, the government cut 90% of funds for healthcare sector and caused severe deterioration in healthcare system of the country.

Iraq under Saddam Hussein was known for religious tolerance, as different religious minorities coexisted peacefully. The government led by Saddam was a secularist based. During his tenure, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq, highlighting the country's diverse religious landscape. Tariq Aziz, who was a Chaldean, held various political positions in the Ba'athist government and was a close advisor to Saddam Hussein. Due to close relations with Chaldeans, Saddam donated heavy amount to Chaldean churches and institutions across the United States, despite having hostile relations.^{[citation needed]}

During Saddam Hussein's rule, the Jewish community in Iraq was treated fairly.^[83] They were among the various religious minority groups in the country. They had the freedom to practice their religion.^[85]The Iraqi government even helped restore the Baghdad Synagogue about ten years before he was ousted.^[90] An incident took place on 4 October 1998, when a Palestinian man opened fire, killing four people including two Jews. Following the arrest of Palestinian perpetrator, the Iraqi government pledged to ensure prompt justice. As a precautionary measure, police guards were stationed at the synagogue, and the Iraqi Cabinet released a statement denouncing the shooting incident. The Cabinet emphasized that the Jewish community in Iraq are Iraqis that should not be associated with Zionist activities aimed at disrupting the political, economic, social, and health security of Arab countries.^[93] Ezekiel's Tomb, a Jewish site was protected by Ba'ath security forces.^{[citation needed]}

Saddam Hussein had a reputation for his fondness of luxurious goods and would send copies of expensive items, such as diamond-coated Rolex watches, to his friends worldwide. He once sent a Boeing 747 filled with gifts to his ally Kenneth Kaunda. Saddam maintained a close relationship with Russian intelligence agent Yevgeny Primakov, which spanned several decades and potentially aided his stay in power in 1991. Despite his lengthy rule, Saddam only visited two Western countries: Spain in 1974 at the invitation of Francisco Franco, and France in 1975 where he met with Prime Minister Jacques Chirac.^[283][284]

There have been claims that Saddam Hussein financed French politician Jacques Chirac's party, with seized documents suggesting personal benefits for French officials and businessmen close to Chirac. France was Iraq's largest trade partner and provided arms to Saddam during his rule. Tariq Aziz represented Iraq at diplomatic meetings since Saddam rarely left the country. Saddam aimed for Iraq to have a leading role in the Middle East and initially had close ties with the Soviet Union before shifting towards the West until the Gulf War in 1991.

Iraq's relations with the Arab world have experienced significant fluctuations. In 1977, Iraq severed ties with Egypt due to its peace initiatives with Israel. In 1978, an Arab League summit hosted by Baghdad condemned and isolated Egypt for accepting the Camp David Accords. However, during the war with Iran, Egypt's support for Iraq fostered warmer relations and increased high-level contacts, despite the absence of formal ambassadorial representation. Since 1983, Iraq has repeatedly called for restoration of Egypt's "natural role" among Arab countries. Saddam initiated Iraq's nuclear enrichment project in the 1980s, with French assistance. In 1972, Saddam signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union. According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp, the treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States."^[285] In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians.^[285]

After the oil crisis of 1973, France shifted to a pro-Arab policy, which led to closer ties with Saddam Hussein. In 1975, Saddam made a state visit to France, strengthening connections with French business and political circles. He also negotiated an agreement with Iran, resolving border disputes and stopping Iranian support for Iraqi Kurdish opposition. Saddam opposed the Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel in 1979, asserting Arab opposition. Since its establishment in 1920, Iraq has faced challenges with Kurdish separatists in the northern region. In 1970, Saddam Hussein negotiated an autonomy agreement with Kurdish leaders, but it eventually collapsed, leading to violent conflict and Iraqi airstrikes on Kurdish villages in Iran. This deteriorated Iraq's relations with Iran. Following Saddam's 1975 treaty with Iran, the Shah withdrew support for the Kurds, resulting in their defeat.

The first Iraqi nuclear reactor was named by the French "Osirak". Osirak was destroyed on 7 June 1981^[196] by an Israeli air strike (Operation Opera). Saddam Hussein was widely known for his commitment to the Palestinian cause and his anti-Israel stance. However, the official position of Ba'athist Iraq on the conflict was that the future of Iraq's relation with Israel would be determined by the solution accepted by the Palestinians. In 1982, Saddam said to then U.S. congressman:^[197]

Existence of an independent Palestinian state accepted by the Palestinians, and it is also necessary to have a state of security for the Israelis. No single Arab official includes in his policy now the so-called destruction of Israel or wiping it out of existence, but there is not one Arab who believes in coexistence with an aggressive and expansionist entity.

— Saddam Hussein

During his time in power, Saddam Hussein developed close relations with Vietnam and provided support and funding to the country both during and after the Vietnam War. These ties were characterized by mutual cooperation, shared ideological perspectives, and economic exchanges. Following the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, Saddam Hussein admired the resilience and determination of the Vietnamese people in their struggle against foreign intervention. He saw Vietnam as a fellow socialist nation that had successfully resisted Western imperialism. Saddam Hussein and the ruling Ba'ath Party in Iraq shared a common ideological framework with Vietnam's Communist Party. Both leaders emphasized anti-imperialism, socialism, and the pursuit of national liberation.

Saddam Hussein sought to strengthen economic ties with Vietnam. Iraq provided financial aid and technical assistance to Vietnam to support its post-war reconstruction efforts. This assistance included infrastructure development, agriculture, and healthcare projects. Iraq supplied military equipment and training to Vietnam during and after the war. This support aimed to enhance Vietnam's defense capabilities and assist in rebuilding its armed forces. Saddam Hussein expressed political support for Vietnam's territorial integrity and sovereignty. He condemned any foreign interference in Vietnam's internal affairs and advocated for peaceful resolutions to regional conflicts.

Saddam Hussein's government provided humanitarian assistance to Vietnam, particularly during times of natural disasters. Iraq sent relief supplies and financial aid to support Vietnam's recovery efforts. Despite the political changes and conflicts that followed Saddam Hussein's downfall, Iraq and Vietnam maintained diplomatic relations. The depth of the historical ties formed during Saddam's era helped sustain some level of cooperation between the two countries.

Many members of the international community, especially the US, continued to view Saddam as a bellicose tyrant who was a threat to the stability of the region. In his January 2002 state of the union address to Congress, President George W. Bush spoke of an "axis of evil" consisting of Iran, North Korea, and Iraq. Moreover, Bush announced that he would possibly take action to topple the Iraqi government, because of the threat of its weapons of mass destruction. Bush stated that "The Iraqi regime has plotted to develop anthrax, and nerve gas, and nuclear weapons for over a decade ... Iraq continues to flaunt its hostility toward America and to support terror."^[286][287] Documents provided by the CIA and the British government, regarding weapons of mass destruction were found to be unreliable.

After the passing of UNSC Resolution 1441, which demanded that Iraq give "immediate, unconditional and active cooperation" with UN and IAEA inspections,^[288] Saddam allowed U.N. weapons inspectors led by Hans Blix to return to Iraq. During the renewed inspections beginning in November 2002, Blix found no stockpiles of WMD and noted the "proactive" but not always "immediate" Iraqi cooperation as called for by Resolution 1441.^[289]

With war still looming on 24 February 2003, Saddam Hussein took part in an interview with CBS News reporter Dan Rather. Talking for more than three hours, he denied possessing any weapons of mass destruction, or any other weapons prohibited by UN guidelines. He also expressed a wish to have a live televised debate with George W. Bush, which was declined. It was his first interview with a US reporter in over a decade.^[290] CBS aired the taped interview later that week. Saddam Hussein later told an FBI interviewer that he once left open the possibility that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction in order to appear strong against Iran.^[291][292] Supporters of Saddam protested against the coalition forces on the streets of Baghdad.

The Iraqi government and military collapsed within three weeks of the beginning of the US-led 2003 invasion of Iraq on 20 March. By the beginning of April, US-led forces occupied much of Iraq. The resistance of the much-weakened Iraqi Army either crumbled or shifted to guerrilla tactics, and it appeared that Saddam had lost control of Iraq. He was last seen in a video which purported to show him in the Baghdad suburbs surrounded by supporters. When Baghdad fell to US-led forces on 9 April, marked symbolically by the toppling of his statue,^[293] Saddam was nowhere to be found. In July 2003, his sons Uday and Qusay and 14-year-old grandson Mustapha were killed in a three-hour gunfight with US forces.^[294][295] Saddam released a tape audio, addressing the killing of his sons and grandson, by calling them "martyr".

In April 2003, Saddam's whereabouts remained in question during the weeks following the fall of Baghdad and the conclusion of the major fighting of the war. Various sightings of Saddam were reported in the weeks following the war, but none were authenticated. At various times Saddam released audio tapes promoting popular resistance to his ousting.

Saddam was placed at the top of the US list of most-wanted Iraqis. On 13 December 2003, in Operation Red Dawn, Saddam was captured by American forces after being found hiding in a hole in the ground near a farmhouse in ad-Dawr, near Tikrit. Following his capture, Saddam was transported to a US base near Tikrit, and later taken to the American base near Baghdad. Documents obtained and released by the National Security Archive detail FBI interviews and conversations with Saddam while he was in US custody.^[296] On 14 December, US administrator in Iraq Paul Bremer confirmed that Saddam Hussein had indeed been captured at a farmhouse in ad-Dawr near Tikrit.^[297] Bremer presented video footage of Saddam in custody.

Saddam was shown with a full beard and hair longer than his familiar appearance. He was described by US officials as being in good health. Bremer reported plans to put Saddam on trial, but claimed that the details of such a trial had not yet been determined. Iraqis and Americans who spoke with Saddam after his capture generally reported that he remained self-assured, describing himself as a "firm, but just leader."^[298]

British tabloid newspaper The Sun posted a picture of Saddam wearing white briefs on the front cover of a newspaper. Other photographs inside the paper show Saddam washing his trousers, shuffling, and sleeping. The US government stated that it considered the release of the pictures a violation of the Geneva Convention and that it would investigate the photographs.^[299][300] During this period Saddam was interrogated by FBI agent George Piro.^[301]

The guards at the Baghdad detention facility called their prisoner "Vic", which stands for "Very Important Criminal" and let him plant a small garden near his cell. The nickname and the garden are among the details about the former Iraqi leader that emerged during a March 2008 tour of the Baghdad prison and cell where Saddam slept, bathed, kept a journal, and wrote poetry in the final days before his execution; he was concerned to ensure his legacy and how the history would be told. The tour was conducted by US Marine Maj. Gen. Doug Stone, overseer of detention operations for the US military in Iraq at the time.^[302] During his imprisonment he exercised and was allowed to have his personal garden; he also smoked his cigars and wrote his diary in the courtyard of his cell.^[303]

After his capture by the coalition forces, Saddam was interrogated by officials and authorities at the Baghdad International Airport.^[304][305] Later he was sent to court for trial.^[306][307] On 30 June 2004, Saddam Hussein, held in custody by US forces at the US base "Camp Cropper", along with 11 other senior Ba'athist leaders, was handed over to the interim Iraqi government to stand trial for crimes against humanity and other offences.^[308]

Saddam hired his long-time friend and supporter Bhim Singh from India to fight the case from his side.^[309] However, his way to Baghdad was blocked by American authorities. Failed to help Saddam, Singh panned the U.S invasion of Iraq and defended Saddam, which sparked controversy and criticism of Singh. He also said that "A dead Saddam can be more dangerous than alive Saddam". Singh later also condemned the execution of Saddam.

A few weeks later, he was charged by the Iraqi Special Tribunal with crimes committed against residents of Dujail in 1982, following a failed assassination attempt against him. Specific charges included the murder of 148 people, torture of women and children and the illegal arrest of 399 others.^[310][311] Their were many challenges in his trial. Saddam Hussein's fingerprints were obtained by the National Security Archive for trial.

Saddam and his lawyers contesting the court's authority and maintaining that he was still the President of Iraq.^[312] The assassinations and attempted assassinations of several of Saddam's lawyers. The replacement of the chief presiding judge midway through the trial. Saddam delivered strong statements during both his trial and hearing, which later became popular among his supporters.

On 5 November 2006, Saddam was found guilty of crimes against humanity and sentenced to death by hanging. Upon hearing the death sentence, Saddam shouted by saying "Allah Akbar". Saddam's half-brother, Barzan Ibrahim, and Awad Hamed al-Bandar, head of Iraq's Revolutionary Court in 1982, were convicted of similar charges. The verdict and sentencing were both appealed, but subsequently affirmed by Iraq's Supreme Court of Appeals.^[313]

Saddam was hanged on the first day of Eid ul-Adha, 30 December 2006,^[314] despite his wish to be executed by firing squad (which he argued was the lawful military capital punishment, citing his military position as the commander-in-chief of the Iraqi military).^[315] The execution was carried out at Camp Justice, an Iraqi army base in Kadhimiya, a neighborhood of northeast Baghdad. Saudi Arabia condemned Iraqi authorities for carrying on with the execution on a holy day. A presenter from the Al-Ikhbariya television station officially stated: "There is a feeling of surprise and disapproval that the verdict has been applied during the holy months and the first days of Eid al-Adha. Leaders of Islamic countries should show respect for this blessed occasion ... not demean it."^[316]

Video of the execution was recorded on a mobile phone and his captors could be heard insulting Saddam. The video was leaked to electronic media and posted on the Internet within hours, becoming the subject of global controversy.^[317] It was later claimed by the head guard at the tomb where his remains lay that Saddam's body had been stabbed six times after the execution.^[318] Saddam's demeanor while being led to the gallows has been discussed by two witnesses, Iraqi Judge Munir Haddad and Iraqi national security adviser Mowaffak al-Rubaie. The accounts of the two witnesses are contradictory as Haddad describes Saddam as being strong in his final moments whereas al-Rubaie says Saddam was clearly afraid.^[319]

Saddam's last words during the execution, "May God's blessings be upon Muhammad and his household. And may God hasten their appearance and curse their enemies." Then one of the crowd repeatedly said the name of the Iraqi Shiite cleric, Moqtada Al-Sadr. Saddam laughed and later said, "Do you consider this manhood?" The crowd shouted, "go to Hell." Saddam replied, "To the hell that is Iraq!?" Again, one of the crowd asked those who shouted to keep quiet for God. Saddam Hussein started recitation of final Muslim prayers, "I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." One of the crowd shouted, "The tyrant [dictator] has collapsed!" Saddam said, "May God's blessings be upon Muhammad and his household (family)". He recited the Shahada one and a half times, as while he was about to say 'Muhammad' on the second Shahada, the trapdoor opened, cutting him off mid-sentence. The rope broke his neck, killing him instantly.^[320] Not long before the execution, Saddam's lawyers released his last letter.^[321] A second unofficial video, apparently showing Saddam's body on a trolley, emerged several days later. It sparked speculation that the execution was carried out incorrectly as Saddam Hussein had a gaping hole in his neck.^[322]

Saddam was buried at his birthplace of Al-Awja in Tikrit, Iraq, on 31 December 2006. He was buried 3 km (2 mi) from his sons Uday and Qusay Hussein.^[323] His tomb was reported to have been destroyed in March 2015.^[324] Before it was destroyed, a Sunni tribal group reportedly removed his body to a secret location, fearful of what might happen.^[325]

In 1979, Jacob Yasso of Sacred Heart Chaldean Church in Detroit congratulated Saddam Hussein on his presidency. In return, Yasso said that Saddam Hussein donated US$250,000 to his church, which is made up of at least 1,200 families of Middle Eastern descent. In 1980, Detroit Mayor Coleman Young allowed Yasso to present the key to the city of Detroit to Saddam Hussein. At the time, Saddam then asked Yasso, "I heard there was a debt on your church. How much is it?" After the inquiry, Saddam then donated another $200,000 to Chaldean Sacred Heart Church. Yasso said that Saddam made donations to Chaldean churches all over the world, and even went on record as saying "He's very kind to Christians."^[326]

In 2001, Saddam chaired a meeting with Iraqi government and planned to donate US$94 million to poverty affected peoples across the United States. The Iraqi National Cabinet stated: “The Cabinet decided, on humanitarian grounds, to allocate 100 million euros [about $94 million] to be distributed to poor Americans,”.^[327] He donated the amount before George W. Bush took presidency.^[328] Saddam said about the aid that, " it is for humanitarian reasons and not for the American government".^[329]

In 2003, Saddam donated $260,000 to 26 families of Palestinians killed.^[330]

The political ideas and politics pursued by Saddam Hussein became known as Saddamism. This doctrine was officially endorsed by his government and promoted by the Iraqi daily newspaper Babil owned by his son Uday Hussein.^[331]

During his leadership, Saddam promoted the idea of dual nationalism which combines Iraqi nationalism and Arab nationalism, a much broader form of ethnic nationalism which supports Iraqi nationalism and links it to matters that impact Arabs as a whole.^[332] Saddam Hussein believed that the recognition of the ancient Mesopotamian origins and heritage of Iraqi Arabs was complementary to supporting Arab nationalism.^[332]

In the course of his reign, the Ba'athist regime officially included the historic Kurdish Muslim leader Saladin as a patriotic symbol in Iraq, while Saddam called himself son of the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar and had stamped the bricks of ancient Babylon with his name and titles next to him.^[333][334] During the Gulf War, Saddam claimed the historic roles of Nebuchadnezzar, Saladin and Gamal Abdel Nasser.^[335]

He also conducted two show elections, in 1995 and 2002. In the 1995 referendum, conducted on 15 October, he reportedly received 99.96% of the votes in a 99.47% turnout, getting 3,052 negative votes among an electorate of 8.4 million.^[336][337]

In the 15 October 2002 referendum he officially achieved 100% of approval votes and 100% turnout, as the electoral commission reported the next day that every one of the 11,445,638 eligible voters cast a "Yes" vote for the president.^[338]

He erected statues around the country, which Iraqis toppled after his fall.^[339][340]

Saddam Hussein's regime was notorious for its repressive tactics, including widespread surveillance, torture, and extrajudicial killings.^[341][342] Human rights organizations documented numerous cases of human rights abuses committed by his government.^[343] Saddam regime suppressed political dissent and opposition through a combination of violence, intimidation, and censorship.^[344] Freedom of speech and freedom of the press were severely curtailed, and political opponents were often executed or imprisoned.^[345] Saddam Hussein initiated several military conflicts, including the Iran-Iraq War, Invasion of Kuwait and the Gulf War.^[346] These actions resulted in significant loss of life and destabilized the region.^[347][348] While there were economic development initiatives, Saddam Hussein's regime was also marked by mismanagement and widespread corruption.^[349] The economic sanctions imposed on Iraq during his rule further exacerbated economic hardships for the country's population.^[350]

During his rule, he implemented various policies and initiatives that some people viewed as beneficial for Iraq and the broader Middle Eastern region. Iraq during Saddam was developed in terms of education and Saddam Hussein's government invested heavily in infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, and public buildings.^[351][352] This development contributed to the modernization of Iraq's cities and improved the country's overall infrastructure.^[353] Under Saddam Hussein's regime, there was an emphasis on improving access to education and healthcare.^{[353][354][355]} The government invested in building schools and hospitals, and literacy rates in Iraq increased significantly during his rule.^{[356][357][358]} Saddam Hussein's government implemented policies aimed at advancing women's rights in Iraq.^[359] Women were encouraged to participate in education and the workforce, and many held high-ranking positions in government and public institutions.^[360][361] Saddam Hussein's regime had a secular character, which meant that religion did not play a dominant role in the government's policies. This allowed for a degree of religious diversity and tolerance within Iraq. Still today, many Iraqi Jews respect Saddam, for his treatment to Jews.^[362]

In the Arab world, Saddam is well regarded, especially for his support of the Palestinian cause.^[363] A memorial dedicated to Saddam was built in Qalqilya, Palestine.^{[364][365][366]} Additionally, many portraits and other forms of memorials are found throughout Palestine.^[367][368] During his regime, Iraq and India shared a strong relationship.^[369] Even today, Saddam has a huge fan following in India.^[370] Indian singer Sidhu Moose Wala mentioned Saddam in his song "Bambiha Bole," stating that he was a well-reputed person. Saddam was an admirer of Indira Gandhi, whom he met in 1974 during an international trip to India.^[371] Former US president Donald Trump praised Saddam for militant suppression and stability during his presidency in Iraq.^[372] A beach near the Indian city of Malappuram has been named Saddam Beach. Saddam is still loved by many Jordanians.^[373] Despite having tense relations with Kurdish separatists, Saddam developed good relations with some Kurds who supported him.^[374] A town in Sri Lanka, was named as Saddam Hussein Nagar, in his memory.^[375] Many Iraqi Jews regard Saddam as he granted protection them.^[376]

Cultural depictions of Saddam can be found on various movies. Three documentary movies made on Saddam. Saddam's Tribe, released in 2007, explores the complex relationship between Saddam Hussein and the Albu Nasir tribe, a powerful tribal group in Iraq. In 2008, a TV series based on his life — House of Saddam was released. Irish actor Barry Keoghan will appear on a new movie, being made on Saddam, which was announced in 2024.^[377] Saddam dominated politics of Iraq for 35 years and developed a cult of personality in the world.

In the Arab world, Saddam is well regarded, specially for his support of Palestinian cause. A memorial dedicated to Saddam was built in Qalqilya, Palestine. Also many portraits and other forms of memorials are found throughout Palestine. During his regime, Iraq and India shared a strong relationship. Still today, Saddam have a huge fan-following in India. Indian singer Sidhu Moose Wala mentioned Saddam in his song Bambiha Bole. He stated about Saddam that he was a well-reputed person. Saddam was an admirer of Indira Gandhi, whom Saddam met in 1974, during an international trip to India. A beach near Indian city of Malappuram has been named as Saddam Beach.^[378] Saddam is still loved among many Jordanians.^[379] Despite having tense-relations with Kurdish separatists, Saddam developed good relations with some Kurds, who supported him.^[374] Former US president Donald Trump praised Saddam for militant suppression and stability during his presidency in Iraq.^[372] A town in Sri Lanka, was named as Saddam Hussein Nagar, in his memory.^[375] He is considered by Muslims as "hero of Islam".

Three documentary movies made on Saddam. Saddam's Tribe, released in 2007, explores the complex relationship between Saddam Hussein and the Albu Nasir tribe, a powerful tribal group in Iraq. In 2008, a TV series based on his life — House of Saddam was released.

In 1991, the Iraqi government awarded Saddam the Rafidain medal, also known as Order of the Two Rivers, the country's highest honor, as a recognition of his "historic role" and "noble services to Iraq".^[380][381] This announcement was made following a Cabinet meeting, and Information Minister Hamid Youssef Hummadi stated that the decision was unanimous.^[380][381] The award was bestowed on Saddam Hussein, during his 54th birthday, in appreciation of his exceptional contributions and significant impact on Iraq.^[380]

He was honored by titles such as "Field Marshal" and "Comrade". Saddam Hussein is one of the recipients Key to the City.^[382][383] In 1980, Saddam Hussein was awarded a key to the city of Detroit after he donated almost half a million dollars to a church in the city of Detroit.^[384][385] The Ba'ath government led by Saddam Hussein, successfully turned Iraq into a leading hub for healthcare and education.^[386] This improved quality of life in Iraq.^[387] For improving quality of life of Iraqis, Saddam was honored by an award from UNESCO.^[388]

Saddam received a number of medals, which were displayed at a museum in Johannesburg, South Africa.^[389] He received or Order of Merit (Wisam al-Jadara), which is rare and was awarded to only a few Iraqi rulers.^[390] Order of the Mother of Battles was awarded to Saddam Hussein for his role in the 1991 Gulf War against Kuwait and the United States.^[391] Saddam received medals for the 1948-'49 Palestinian War, crushing the Kurdish rebellion, the 1963 and 1968 revolutions, cooperation with Syria, peace in 1970, and the 1973 war with Israel.^[392]

Saddam Hussein was awarded the title of "Hero of the Revolution" in 1979, following his rise to power as President of Iraq.^[393] In 1995, the Iraqi Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party declared Saddam Hussein the "Great Leader of the Arab Nation."^[393]

Saddam Hussein married his cousin Sajida Talfah, with whom his pair was fixed since childhood. With her, he had two sons

• Ba'athist Iraq

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