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List of national instruments (music)

This list contains musical instruments of symbolic or cultural importance within a nation, state, ethnicity, tribe or other group of people.

In some cases, national instruments remain in wide use within the nation (such as the Puerto Rican cuatro), but in others, their importance is primarily symbolic (such as the Welsh triple harp). Danish ethnologist Lisbet Torp has concluded that some national instrument traditions, such as the Finnish kantele, are invented, pointing to the "influence of intellectuals and nationalists in the nationwide promotion of selected musical instruments as a vehicle for nationalistic ideas".[1] Governments do not generally officially recognize national instruments; some exceptions being the Paraguayan harp,[2] the Japanese koto[3] and the Trinidadian steelpan.[4]

This list compiles instruments that have been alleged to be a national instrument by any of a variety of sources, and an instrument's presence on the list does not indicate that its status as a national instrument is indisputable, only that its status has been credibly argued. Each instrument on this list has a Hornbostel-Sachs number immediately below it. This number indicates the instrument's classification within the Hornbostel-Sachs system (H-S), which organizes instruments numerically based on the manner in which they produce sound.[5]

Images and recordings are supplied where available; note that there are often variations within a national musical tradition, and thus the images and recordings may not be accurate in depicting the entire spectrum of the given nation's music, and that some images and recordings may be taken from a region outside the core of the national instrument's home when such distinctions have little relevance to the information present in the image and recordings. A number of countries have more than one instrument listed, each having been described as a national instrument, not usually by the same source; neither the presence of multiple entries for one nation, nor for multiple nations for one instrument, on this list is reflective of active dispute in any instance. Alternative names and spellings are given. These mostly come from alternative spellings within English or alternative methods of transliterating from a foreign language to English, such as the Chinese yangqin, also transliterated yang ch'in and yang qin. Others reflect regions or subcultures within a given nation, such as the Australian didgeridoo which is or has been called didjeridu, yidaki, yiraki, magu, kanbi and ihambilbilg in various Australian Aboriginal languages. All non-English words are italicized.

NationInstrumentDescription
Recording		H-S numberImage
Afghanistanrubab[6][7]
rabab		Short-necked three-stringed lute with sympathetic and drone strings, fretted and plucked with a plectrum, with a double-chambered body, the lower part of which is covered in skin, and with three main strings321.321-6
AlbaniaÇiftelia
Gajde
Lahuta
Araboud[8]
Pear-shaped fretless stringed instrument, with five courses of two strings and a single eleventh string, a bent back and a bowl-shaped body, often with up to three soundholes, played with a pick321.321-6
Argentinabandoneón[9][10]
Button accordion with a box shape, played with both hands using buttons that produce two sets of notes per hand412.132
Argentinaguitar[11][12]
Fretted stringed instrument with a hollow body and a soundboard321.322
Armeniaduduk[7]
daduk		Double-reed pipe with wide reeds made from pieces of cane in a duckbill-type assembly, generally diatonic and with a single octave range421.211.12
Australian, Indigenousdidgeridoo[13][14]
didjeridu, yidaki, yiraki, magu, kanbi, ihambilbilg		Straight trumpet without fingerholes, traditionally made from a trunk or thick branch of a tree, sometimes with a rim of beeswax around the blowing end, requires circular breathing423.121.11
Austria,

Czechia

Bock[15]
Bockpfeife		Use of goatskins in constructing the bag, similar to the common use of other goat-terms for bagpipes in other nations422.112.2-62
+
422.221.1-621
Azerbaijanbalaban[16][17]
Set of cylindrical shawm-like instruments, with an air reservoir like a bagpipe422.121-62
Baganda peoples of Ugandaendongo[18]
Bowl lyre made of lizardskin with strings tied to a piece of wood inserted into two holes on two arms321.21
Balochssuroz[19]
Bowed string instrument with a long neck, similar to a fiddle or sarangi and played vertically321.322—
Bangladeshdotara[20]
Small stringed instrument, with plucked metal strings, elongated belly as soundboard and narrow neck ending in a pegbox, decorated with carvings of animals and covered with skin321.322
Bashkirkurai[21][22]
Long open endblown flute with five fingerholes421.111.12
Basotholesiba[23]
Stringed instrument, blown rather than plucked or strummed, with a single string and tuning noose attached both to a bow and a feather quill, with a frame made from a coconut shell311.121.222
Bavariazither[24][25]
Volkszither		Stringed instrument with a soundbox, with strings stretched across it, originally with four melody strings and no more than fifteen accompaniment strings314.122
Bhutandranyen[26]
dranyen, dramnyen		Seven-stringed lute, fretless, long-necked and double-waisted with rosette-shaped sound hole321.321
Boliviacharango[27]
charanga		Fretted, hollow-bodied bowl lute, usually with four or five doubled strings, with as many as eleven tunings, traditionally made from an armadillo shell321.321-6
Brazilguitar[28]
violão		Fretted six-stringed instrument with a soundboard and a hollow body, originally with steel strings, but now more commonly with nylon321.322
Brazilberimbau[29]
Single-stringed musical bow
ⓘ		311.121.221
Brazilpandeiro[30]
Handheld frame drum with metal jingles (platinelas) attached, tuned through adjusting the tension of the head, can also be shaken or rasped211.311
+
112.122
Bulgariagaida[31]
Bagpipe with three types of chanters, one a simple reed, open at one end, another a small, conical tube with eight fingerholes, one of which is the flea-hole (a small hole made out of a tube that can raise any note a half-step), and the last is a long, no-holed drone422.22-62
Chinaguqin[32][33]
qin		A plucked seven-string zither with open strings and a range of about four octaves312.22
Chinaguzheng[34]
zheng, gu-zheng		Half-tube zither, rectangular with three sound holes on the bottom, now with twenty-one strings most typically, pentatonic tuning, strings are plucked by hand312.22-5
Chinapipa[35]
Pear-shaped bowl lute with a neck, played by plucking321.321-5
Chinayangqin[7]
yang ch'in, yang qin		Hammered dulcimer, with a trapezoidal sounding board and traditionally bronze strings, struck with rubber-tipped bamboo hammers314.122-4
Colombiacuatro[36]
Fretted stringed instrument with a hollow body and with four strings321.322
ColombiaTiple Colombiano[37]
Small guitar-like fretted instrument with twelve strings arranged in four triple-strung courses.321.322
Costa Ricamarimba[38]
Xylophone-like instrument with gourd resonators, two sets of overlapping keys, struck with mallets111.222-4
Corsicacetera
ceterina, cetara		A musical instrument of the cittern family, common in Corsica.111.224-4
Cretelyra[39]
Three-stringed fretted, pear-shaped instrument with a hollow body and a vaulted back, propped up on the knee321.21
Croatiatamburica and Lijerica[40][41]
tamburitza		Lute-like stringed instrument with a long neck, picked or strummed, variable number of strings321.321
Cubatres[42]
Guitar-like instrument with a neck and three courses of two strings each321.322
Dagara peoples of Ghanagyil[43]
Xylophone-like calabash gourd with holes covered in spider silk, wooden frame, struck with a hammer111.222-4
Ecuadorrondador[44][45]
Set of chorded bamboo panpipes that produces two tones simultaneously, consisting of pieces of cane, placed side by side in order by size and closed at one end, played by blowing across the top of the instrument421.112.11
Egypt, Ancientharp[46]
Open harp, used in widely varying forms, though originally semi-circular and with five to seven strings, number of strings increased over time, while the size decreased322.12
Egypt, Ancientsistrum[47]
U-shaped frame drum with small rings that make sound when shaken112.112
EnglandEnglish concertina[7]
A small free reed instrument, usually hexagonal in shape. The instrument is played by moving bellows between the hands to blow air over reeds, each note being sounded by a button.412.132
EnglandNorthumbrian smallpipes[48]
Bellows-blown bagpipes from Northeastern England consisting of a single chanter (generally with keys) and usually four drones.422.112
Etruriakithara[49]
Stringed instrument with a deep soundbox made of two tables, connected by ribs, with strings attached to a tuning bar, played with a plectrum321.22
Finlandkantele[1][50][51][52][53]
kannel		Zither–harp, traditionally with five strings, now with up to thirty, held in the lap314.122
Finland, especially Swedish-speaking Finnsviolin[53][54]
Four stringed instrument, bowed, hourglass-shape and an arched top and back
ⓘ		321.322
Fulatambin[55][56]
sereendu, fulannu		Diagonal diatonic flute without a bell, made from a conical vine, with three finger-holes and a rectangular embouchere with two wings on either side411.111.22
Galiciagaita[57][58]
gaita de fole, gaita galega		Diatonic bagpipe with a conical chanter and at least one bass drone, used to accompany both spiritual and secular, as well as lyric and dance music, usually accompanied by a drum (tambour)422.211.2-62
Germanywaldzither[59]
German lute, also applied to the lute guitar		Cittern with nine steel strings; tuned C, G G, C C, E E, G G; famous for allegedly been played by Martin Luther at the Wartburg321.322
Greece, Ancientaulos[60]
auloi		Highly variant double-shawm with a cylindrical bore422.121
Greece, Ancientlyre[61][62]
Stringed instrument, strummed with a plectrum, with the free hand silencing unwanted strings, traditionally made from a tortoise shell321.21
Greece, Modernbouzouki[1]
String instrument with a pear-shaped body and a long neck, played with plectrum321.321
Guatemalamarimba[63][64]
Xylophone-like instrument with gourd resonators, struck with mallets, with a two level keyboard so it can play the full chromatic scale111.222-4
Hawaiiukulele[65]
String instrument derived from the Portuguese braguinha, from the Hawaiian uku lele, jumping flea, referring to the swift fingerwork the instrument requires
ⓘ		321.322
Hungarycimbalom[66]
czimbalom, cymbalom, cymbalum, ţambal, tsymbaly, tsimbl, santouri, santur		Chromatic hammered dulcimer with four legs314.122-4
Indiasaraswati veena[67]
vina		Semitonically fretted lute with a long, cylindrical shape, resting on two gourds311.222
Indonesiaangklung[68][69]
Two bamboo tubes, closed at one end and with tongues, attached to a square frame, played by shaking from side to side, causing the tongues to vibrate112.122
Irantar[70]
The musical instrument, which has 6 wires and is the main instrument in traditional Iranian music, is produced by Mazzrab.314.122-4
IrelandIrish Harp (Cruit or Cláirseach)
Polychord wire-strung harp with a fore-pillar322.221
IrelandGreat Irish Warpipes Píob Mhór
In modern times this instrument is essentially identical to the Great Highland Bagpipe422.112.2-62
+
422.221.1-621
IrelandUilleann Pipes Píobaí Uilleann, Union Pipes
Pump blown Bagpipe{{{Number}}}
Israelkinnor[71]
David's harp		Biblically described historic instrument, probably a cithara; in modern Hebrew, refers to the violin321.22
Italymandolin[72]
Stringed instrument
ⓘ		321.321
Japankoto[73]
Long and hollow thirteen-stringed instrument312.22-7
Jewishshofar[74]
Horn, flattened by heat and hollowed, used for more religious than purely secular purposes, made from the horn of an animal, most typically a ram or kudu423.121.1
Kazakhstandombra[75][76]
Fretted, long-necked lute with a round body, played by plucking with a plectrum321.321-6
Kenyanyatiti[77][78][79]
3-foot-long (0.91 m) harp, plucked with both hands, made of wood and goat or antelope skin321.21-5
Khoikhoigoura[80]
Single stringed instrument, blown rather than plucked or strummed, with the string attached to a coconut shell resonator and with a tension noose wrapped around the string to adjust the pitch311.121.222—
Koreagayageum[81][82]
kayagum, kayago		zither-like string instrument, with 12 strings.312.22-5
Kyrgyzstankomuz[83][84]
Three-stringed fretless lute, made from wood with gut strings321.321
Lanna (Northern Thailand)pin pia[85]
Chest-resonated stick zither with two to five strings311.221—
Laoskhene[86]
khaen		Mouth organ with bamboo tubes, attached in pairs to the mouthpiece, and with fixed free reeds412.132
Latviakokles[87][88]
kūkles		Diatonic, lute-like string instrument314.122
Lebanondarbuka[89]
debakeh		Goblet-shaped hand drum211.261.21
Lithuaniabirbyne[90]
Aerophone, can be single- or double-reed, with or without a mouthpiece422
Lithuaniakanklė[91]
Stringed instrument314.122
Lobi peoples of Ghanagyil[43]
Keyed calabash gourds with holes covered in spider silk, wooden frame111.222-4
Madagascarvaliha[92][93]
Tubular zither312.11
Mandinka of West Africabalo[94][95]
balafon, bala, balafo, bala, balaphone, balaphon, balaphong, balphone, balangi, balani, gyil		Set of wooden pieces, mounted on gourds, in a frame and played using two rubber-tipped mallets, held in hands with iron cylinders and rings attached to add a jingling sound111.212
+
112.111		—
Maroons of Jamaicaabeng[96]
Aerophone made from the end of a cow horn with the tip broken off on the side, which is blown into423.122.2
Mexicomarimba[97]
Xylophone-like instrument with wooden square tubes resonators, struck with mallets, with a two level keyboard so it can play the full chromatic scale111.222-4
Mongoliamorin khuur[98][99]
horse-head fiddle, igil		Two-stringed instrument, held between the legs, with a trapezoidal body and a horse's head typically carved on the upper edge of the pegbox321.322
Montenegrogusle[100]
Stringed instrument, round, typically with one string bound at the top of the neck with a tuning peg321.321-71
Myanmarsaung-gauk[101]
saung, Burmese harp		Arched harp with sixteen strings, attached to the harp with red cotton tassels322.11
Nepalmadal[102]
Double-headed cylindrical drum, slightly bulging at the waist, held horizontally and played double-handed211.212.1
Netherlandsfiddle[103]
Four-stringed instrument, bowed321.322
Nicaraguamarimba[104]
Xylophone-like instrument with gourd resonators111.222-4
NorwayHardingfele[50][105][106]
Hardanger fiddle		Ornately decorated fiddle with four main strings and four resonating strings beneath them, which are not touched by the bow321.322-71
Norwaylangeleik[50]
Rectangular zither with five or six strings, one melody string and several drone strings314.122
PakistanDaf[107]
dafli, dap, def, tef, defi, gaval, duf, duff, dof		It is a Pakistani version of frame drum musical instrument211.311
Paraguayharp, Paraguayan[108][109][110]
Diatonic harp with 32, 36, 38 or 40 strings, made from tropical wood and with songs in the Guarani language, with an exaggerated neck-arch, played with the fingernail322.211


Perucajón[111][112]
Wooden box with a hole in one side, derived from containers used to transport agricultural products by portworkers111.221
Perucharango[113]
charanga, chillador		Guitar-like instrument, most commonly with ten strings in two courses and made from an armadillo back321.321-6
PhilippinesKudyapi[114]
rondalla plucked chordophone with 14 strings tuned F# B E A D G.321.321
Polynesianose flute[115]
Flute, made from a single piece of bamboo, with three holes to blow into from the nostrils, with fingerholes421.111.22
PortugalPortuguese guitar[116]
Fretted stringed instrument with a hollow body321.322
Puerto Ricocuatro[117]
Fretted stringed instrument with a hollow body, derived from the Spanish tiple and other stringed instruments, made from carved wood with strings (ten, in five sets of two) of leather strips or dried animal gut321.322
Rome, Ancienttibiae[118]
aulos (Greek name)		Double-reed shawm, played paired422.122
RussiaGarmon[119]
Garmon, bellow-driven free reed with keys or buttons to modify the air flow
ⓘ		412.132
Russiabalalaika[7]
Family of triangle-shaped lute-type instruments321.32
Russiagusli[120]
Zither-like instrument with between eleven and thirty-six strings, tuned diatonically314.122
Russiaspoons[121]
Painted wooden teaspoons, used as a percussion instrument111.141
Ryukyus of Japansanshin[122]
Three stringed banjo-like instrument, covered with snakeskin321.312-6
Sakhakhomus[123]
jaw harp, made from a reed attached to a frame, plucked121.221
Scotlandbagpipe, highland[1][124][125]
Bagpipe with a chanter, blowpipe, two tenor drones and a bass drone422.112.2-62
+
422.221.1-621
SerbiaAccordion[126]
Accordion, bellow-driven free reed with keys or buttons to modify the air flow
ⓘ		412.132
Serbiafrula[127]
svirala, jedinka		End-blown wooden flute with six fingerholes421.211.12
Serbiagajda[31]
Surle		Bagpipe with three types of chanters, one a simple reed, open at one end, another a small, conical tube with eight fingerholes, one of which is the flea-hole (a small hole made out of a tube that can raise any note a half-step), and the last is a long, no-holed drone422.22-62
Serbiagusle[128]
Stringed instrument, round, typically with one string bound at the top of the neck with a tuning peg
ⓘ		321.321-71
Slovakiafujara[129][130]
Endblown long bass diatonic fipple flute421.211.12
Sloveniaaccordion[131]
Accordion, bellow-driven free reed with keys or buttons to modify the air flow
ⓘ		412.132
South Africalesiba
rattle stick		The lesiba, and gora or goura, are members of a class of "unbraced mouth-resonated bow[s]" with a flattened quill attached to a long string, stretched over a hard stick, acting as the main source of vibration423.121.12—
Spainguitar[12][132]
Fretted stringed instrument, long-necked with a flat soundboard and back, and incurved sides321.322
Swedendrejelire[50][53]
Hurdy-gurdy that uses a rosined wheel to create sound321.322-72
Swedennyckelharpa[50][133]
Bowed keyed fiddle321.322-71
Swedish Estoniatalharpa[134]
Bowed lyre with no fingerboard321.22-71
Switzerlandalphorn[135][136]
Long wooden conical trumpet, bent at the end, with turned boxwood mouthpieces, traditionally used by herdsmen423.121.12
Trinidad and Tobagosteelpan[4][137][138]
Barrel-shaped percussion instruments, tuned chromatically, originally made from discarded 55 gallon drums111.241.2
Turkeysaz[139][140]
bağlama, kopuz		Fretted lute with a long neck, pear-shaped body, and three courses of seven steel strings321.321-6
Turkmenistandutar[141]
Plucked string instrument with two strings and a long neck, strummed or plucked321.322
Tuvaigil[142]
Horse-head fiddle		Small fiddle321.322
Tuvakhomus[143]
Jaw harp, made from a reed attached to a frame, plucked121.221
Tuvamorin khuur[142]
Horse-head fiddle		Large fiddle with a wooden sound box and two strings attached to tuning pegs in the neck321.322
Ukrainebandura[144]
Diatonic, unfretted lute-like string instrument, traditionally carved from a single block of wood321.321
United StatesAppalachian dulcimer[145][146]
dulcimer, mountain dulcimer, lap dulcimer, fretted dulcimer, dulcimore, et al.		Fretted string instrument of the zither family, typically with three or four strings, originally played in the Appalachian region of the United States. The body extends the length of the fingerboard, and its fretting is generally diatonic.321.312-5
United Statesbanjo[147][148]
Membrane-topped four or five string fretted instrument, plucked or strummed with fingers or a plectrum. Probably African American in origin.321.312-5
Uzbekistandoira[149]
Round, flat drum with shakers made of metal inside and a horse-skin head211.311
+
112.113
Uzbekistankarnay[150][151]
Long brass trumpet with a mouthpiece423.121.12
Venezuelacuatro[36][152][153]
Guitar-like lute with four strings, usually strummed321.322
Venezuelaharp, Venezuelan[153]
Diatonic harp, with an exaggerated neck arch, similar to the Paraguayan harp322.211
Vietnamđàn bầu[154]
321.22
Walescrwth[154]
Six-stringed instrument with a flat fingerboard, fretless321.22
Walesharp, triple[155][156][157]
telyn		Harp with no blades or levers, with three rows of strings, the outer two tuned in a diatonic scale and the inner one tuned to the extra semitones of the chromatic scale322.212.1
Yugoslaviagusle[158]
Stringed instrument, round, typically with one string bound at the top of the neck with a tuning peg
ⓘ		321.321-71
Zimbabwembira[159][160]
thumb piano		Plucked lamellophone, consisting of staggered keys attached to a board, with a halved calabash gourd as resonator122.12

References

Remove Madal from Nepal. It is not a national instrument of Nepal.

Further reading

The following are specifically referenced above or are book-length or extended scholarly works documenting a specific national instrument, not including collections of songs.
  • African American: Conway, Cecelia (1995). African Banjo Echoes in Appalachia : A Study of Folk Traditions (1st ed.). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 0-87049-893-2.
  • African American: Gura, Philip F.; James F. Bollman (1999). America's Instrument: The Banjo in the Nineteenth Century. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2484-4.
  • African American: Linn, Karen (1994). That Half-Barbaric Twang: The Banjo in American Popular Culture. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06433-X.
  • Argentina: Muñoz, R. (1952). Technology of the Argentina Guitar. Buenos Aires.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Argentina: Penón, Arturo; Javier García Méndez; Manuel Román; Marcelle Guertin (1988). The Bandonion: A Tango History, A Memoir of Arturo Penón (Petite histoire du bandonéon et du tango). Translated by Tim Barnard. London, Ontario: Nightwood Editions. ISBN 0-88971-111-9.
  • Argentina: Pinnell, Richard T.; Ricardo Zavadivker (1993). The Rioplatense Guitar. Bold Strummer Guitar Study Series: No. 3. Westport, Connecticut: Bold Strummer. ISBN 0-933224-42-7.
  • Arab: Bilezikjian, John (2006). Hal Leonard Oud Method. Hal Leonard Corporation. ISBN 0-634-07786-4.
  • Armenia: Nercessian, Andy (2001). The Duduk and National Identity in Armenia. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-4075-8.
  • Australia: Schellberg, Dirk (1994). Didgeridoo: Ritual Origins and Playing Techniques. Binkey Kok. ISBN 90-74597-13-0.
  • Australia: Moyle, A. (1981). "The Australian Didjeridu: A Late Musical Intrusion". World Archaeology. 12 (3): 321–331. doi:10.1080/00438243.1981.9979807.
  • Baganda (Uganda): Makubuya, James Kika (1995). Endongo: The Role and Significance of the Baganda Bowl Lyre of Uganda. Los Angeles: University of California.
  • Bavaria: Alpenfolklorismus, Volksmusik, Bayern-Pop. Niederbayerische Blätter für Volksmusik; Nr. 7 (in German). Dingolfing: Wälischmiller'sche Buchdruckerei. 1986.
  • Brazil: Crowdy, Denis (2001). "Hybridity and Segregation in the Guitar Cultures of Brazil". In Andy Bennett; Kevin Dawe (eds.). Guitar Cultures. Oxford, New York: Berg. ISBN 1-85973-429-4.
  • Brazil: Gregory, Jonathan (2007). A Comprehensive Guide to Brazilian Pandeiro. Booksurge. ISBN 978-1-4196-7284-2.
  • China: Gao, Ming (1980). The Lute: Gao Ming's Pipa Ji (Pi pa ji). Translations from the Oriental Classics. Translated by Jean Mulligan. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04760-6.
  • China: Myers, John (1992). The Way of the Pipa: Structure and Imagery in Chinese Lute Music. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-455-5.
  • Finland: Rahkonen, Carl John (1989). The Kantele Traditions of Finland. Indiana University.
  • Ancient Greece: Schlesinger, Kathleen; J.F. Mountford (1970). The Greek Aulos. Groningen: Bouma's Boekhuis. ISBN 90-6088-027-7.
  • Guatemala: Armas Lara, Marcial (1964). El renacimiento de la danza guatemalteca y el origen de la marimba. José de Pineda Ibarra (in Spanish). Guatemala, Centro Editorial: Ministerio de Educación Pública.
  • Guatemala: Chenoweth, Vida (1964). The Marimbas of Guatemala. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press.
  • Guatemala: Pellicer, Sergio Navarrete (2005). Maya Achi Marimba Music in Guatemala. Temple University Press. ISBN 1-59213-292-8.
  • Hawaii: Beloff, Jim (1997). The Ukulele: A Visual History. Emeryville, California: Miller Freeman Books. ISBN 0-87930-454-5.
  • India: Annapoorna, L. (1996). Veena Tradition in Indian Music. Kanishka. ISBN 81-7391-140-1.
  • Ireland: Armstrong, Robert Bruce (1970). The Irish and Highland Harps. Introduction by Seóirse Bodley. New York: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-7165-0073-6.
  • Ireland: Clark, Nora Joan (2003). The Story of the Irish Harp: Its History and Influence. North Creek Press. ISBN 0-9724202-0-7.
  • Ireland: Rimmer, Joan (1969). The Irish Harp. Cork: Mercier Press for the Cultural Relations Committee. ISBN 0-85342-151-X.
  • Japan: Adriaansz, Willem (1973). The Kumiuta and Danmono Traditions of Japanese Koto Music. Los Angeles: University of California. ISBN 0-520-01785-4.
  • Japan: Johnson, Henry (2004). The Koto: A Traditional Instrument in Contemporary Japan. Hotei. ISBN 90-74822-63-0.
  • Japan: Kubota, Hideki (1986). Yakumogoto no shirabe: Shinwa to sono kokoro (八雲琴の調べ : 神話とその心 / 窪田英樹) (in Japanese). Ōsaka-shi: Tōhō Shuppan. ISBN 4-88591-144-3.
  • Japan: Wade, Bonnie C. (1976). Tegotomono: Music for the Japanese Koto. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-8371-8908-X.
  • Latvia: Niles, Christina Jaremko (1980). The Baltic Folk Zithers: An Ethnological and Structural Analysis (M.A.). UCLA.
  • Lithuania: Niles, Christina Jaremko (1980). The Baltic Folk Zithers: An Ethnological and Structural Analysis (M.A.). UCLA.
  • Mexico: Kaptain, Laurence (1992). The Wood That Sings: The Marimba in Chiapas, Mexico. Everett, Pennsylvania: HoneyRock. ISBN 0-9634060-0-0.
  • Mexico: Solís, Ted (1983). The Marimba in Mexico City: Contemporary Contexts of a Traditional Regional Ensemble (Ph. D.). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
  • Mongolia: Marsh, Peter K. (2004). Horse-Head Fiddle and the Cosmopolitan Reimagination of Mongolia. Routledge. ISBN 0-203-00551-1.
  • Mongolia: Santaro, Mikhail (2005). Strings That Conquered the World: Morin Khuur, the Mongolian Horse-head Fiddle. Admon. ISBN 99929-0-376-7.
  • Norway: Een, Andrea Ruth (1977). Comparison of Melodic Variants in the Hardingfele Repertoire of Norway. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
  • Norway: Goertzen, Chris (1997). Fiddling for Norway: Revival and Identity. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-30049-8.
  • Norway: Hopkins, Pandora (1986). Aural Thinking in Norway: Performance and Communication With the Hardingfele. Foreword by Jan-Petter Blom. Appendix by Magne Myhren. New York: Human Sciences Press. ISBN 0-89885-253-6.
  • Portugal: Cabral, Pedro Caldeira (1999). The Portuguese Guitar. Lisbon.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Sardinia: Bentzon, Andreas Fridolin Weis (1969). The Launeddas: A Sardinian Folk-music Instrument. University of Michigan. Akademisk forlag.
  • Scotland: Cannon, Roderick David (2002). The Highland Bagpipe and Its Music. John Donald. ISBN 0-85976-549-0.
  • Scotland: Donaldson, William (2000). The Highland Pipe and Scottish Society, 1750-1950: Transmission, Change and the Concept of Tradition. East Linton, East Lothian, Scotland: Tuckwell Press. ISBN 1-86232-075-6.
  • Scotland: MacNeill, Seumas; Frank Richardson (1987). Piobaireachd and Its Interpretation: Classical Music of the Highland Bagpipe. Donald. ISBN 0-85976-176-2.
  • Scotland: Manson, Wiliam Laird (1901). The Highland Bagpipe: Its History, Literature, and Music. Harvard University. A. Gardner. ISBN 0-7158-1213-0.
  • Spain: Schirmer, G. (1986). Spanish Guitar Music: Guitar Solo. Hal Leonard. ISBN 0-7935-3583-2.
  • Spain: Gupta, Rahul (2001). The Symphony Spanish Guitar Book. Gyan Sagar Publication. ISBN 81-7685-015-2.
  • Sweden: Ling, Jan (1979). Nyckelharpan: studier i ett folkligt musikinstrument (in Swedish). Prisma.
  • Switzerland: Bachmann-Geiser, Brigitte (1999). Das Alphorn : vom Lock- zum Rockinstrument (in German). Bern: P. Haupt. ISBN 3-258-05640-4.
  • Trinidad and Tobago: Adams, Norman Darway; Austin O Agho (2005). Stories in Steel: The True Account of the Invention of the Steelpan. Morvant, Trinidad: Jhullian Graphics. ISBN 976-8194-50-2.
  • Trinidad and Tobago: Hayward, Rachel (1993). The Steelpan Handbook. Piper Publications.
  • Wales: Andersson, Otto Emanuel (1973). The Bowed-Harp: A Study in the History of Early Musical Instruments. Additional footnotes by Kathleen Schlesinger. New York: AMS Press. ISBN 0-404-56503-4.
  • Wales: Ellis, Osian (1991). The Story of the Harp in Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales. ISBN 0-7083-1104-0.
  • Zimbabwe: Berliner, Paul (1981). The Soul of Mbira: Music and Traditions of the Shona People of Zimbabwe. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-226-04379-7.
  • Zimbabwe: Brenner, Klaus-Peter (1997). Chipendani und Mbira: Musikinstrumente, nicht-begriffliche Mathematik und die Evolution der harmonischen Progressionen in der Musik der Shona in Zimbabwe. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Philologisch-Historische Klasse: 3. Folge, Nr. 221 (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-82372-X.
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