Decolonisation of Asia

The decline of Spain and Portugal in the 17th century paved the way for other European powers, namely the Netherlands, France and England. Portugal would lose influence in all but three of its colonies, Portuguese India, Macau and Timor.

By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had taken over much of the old Portuguese colonies, and had established a strong presence in present-day Indonesia, with colonies in Aceh, Bantam, Makassar and Jakarta. The Dutch also had trade links with Siam, Japan, China and Bengal.

The British had competed with Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch for their interests in Asia since the early 17th century and by the mid-19th century held much of India (via the British East India Company), as well as Burma, Ceylon, Malaya and Singapore. After The Indian Rebellion of 1857, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India, thus solidifying the British rule on the subcontinent. The last British acquisition in Asia was the New Territories of Hong Kong, which was leased from the Qing emperor in 1897, expanding the British colony originally ceded in the Treaty of Nanking in 1842.

The French had little success in India following defeats against the British in the 17th century, though they held onto possessions on the east coast of India (such as Pondicherry and Mahar) until decolonisation. The French established their most lucrative and substantial colony in Indochina in 1862, eventually occupying the present-day areas of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia by 1887.

Japan's first colony was the island of Taiwan, occupied in 1874 and officially ceded by the Qing emperor in 1894. Japan continued its early imperialism with the annexation of Korea in 1910.

The United States entered the region in 1898 during the Spanish–American War, taking the Philippines as its sole colony after a mock battle in the capital and the later formal acquisition of the Philippines from Spain through the 1898 Treaty of Paris.

The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessions and the date of decolonization.^[1]

Country	Date of acquisition of sovereignty	Acquisition of sovereignty
/  Afghanistan	1919	Treaty of Rawalpindi ends British control of foreign policy
Bahrain	15 August 1971	End of treaties with the United Kingdom
Bangladesh	26 March 1971	Independence from Pakistan declared
Bhutan	1885	Ugyen Wangchuck ends a period of civil war and unites Bhutan
Brunei	1 January 1984	Brunei regains its independence after an agreement with the British on 4 January 1979
Cambodia	9 September 1953	France grants Cambodia independence
	26 September 1989	Becomes free from Vietnamese occupation; it gets back its name instead of the People's Republic of Kampuchea
Taiwan	1 January 1912	On the first day of January of 1912 The Republic of China unilaterally declared their independence.
China	7 December 1949	On the 1st of October of 1949 the Chinese Communist Party wins against the Kuomintang which then retreats to the island of Taiwan.
India	15 August 1947	Independence from the British Empire
Indonesia	27 December 1949	Independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands following their unilateral Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945 and subsequent Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference in The Hague.
Iran	609 BC	After the fall of Assyria between 616 BC and 609 BC, a unified Median state was formed, which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and ancient Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East.
Iraq	762	The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad along the Tigris in the 8th century as its capital, and the city became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries
	3 October 1932	Kingdom of Iraq
Israel	14 May 1948	Upon the end of the British Mandate, Jews declared independence, forming the State of Israel; the remainder of Palestine came under control of Egypt (Gaza Strip) and Transjordan (West Bank)
Japan	4th century CE	During the subsequent Kofun period, most of Japan gradually unified under a single kingdom
Jordan	25 May 1946	End of the British Mandate for Palestine
Kuwait	1752	Establishment of the Sheikhdom of Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan	31 August 1991	Independence from the Soviet Union
Laos	22 October 1953	Independence from France
Lebanon	26 November 1941	Independence from France declared
	22 November 1943	Independence from France recognised
Malaysia	31 August 1957	Malayan independence from the United Kingdom was declared in Dataran Merdeka (Independence Square)
	16 September 1963	Malaysia was formed by the federation of North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore with the existing States of the Federation of Malaya.
Maldives	26 July 1965	Independence from the United Kingdom
Mongolia	1206	Mongol Empire formed
	29 December 1911	Proclamation of Mongolian independence from Manchu's Qing dynasty
Myanmar	4 January 1948	Myanmar (Burma) declares independence from the British Empire
Nepal	25 September 1768	Nepali unification
Oman	26 January 1650	Expulsion of the Portuguese Army from Oman
Pakistan	14 August 1947	Independence from British India in the Partition
Palestine	15 November 1988	Palestinian Declaration of Independence
Philippines	12 June 1898	The evolving revolutionary movement in Philippine revolutionaries declared independence from the Spanish Empire but sovereignty remained with Spain, which ceded the country to the United States.
	4 July 1946	The United States recognises independence under the provisions of the Treaty of Manila (1946). The 1935 Constitution remained in effect until 1973, when the Marcos regime promulgated a newer one, in turn, replaced by the present 1987 Constitution.
Qatar	18 December 1878	Independence from the Ottoman Empire
Saudi Arabia	1744	Establishment of the First Saudi State
Singapore	3 June 1959	Self-government under the United Kingdom
	9 August 1965	Malaysia unilaterally expels Singapore from the federation of Malaysian states, creating an independent Singaporean state
Sri Lanka	4 February 1948	Independence from the United Kingdom
Syria	28 September 1961	End of the United Arab Republic
Tajikistan	9 September 1991	Independence from the Soviet Union
Thailand	6 November 1767	King Taksin the Great reunifies Thailand, establishing a new kingdom and repelling Burmese invasions
Timor-Leste	28 November 1975	East Timor declares its independence but was occupied by Indonesia
	20 May 2002	Independence was recognised by the international community following the UN-sponsored act of self-determination of 1999
Turkmenistan	27 October 1991	Independence from the Soviet Union
United Arab Emirates	2 December 1971	End of a treaty relationship with the United Kingdom
Uzbekistan	31 August 1991	Independence from the Soviet Union declared
Vietnam	2524 BC	Hùng king established Van Lang, the first kingdom of Vietnam
Yemen	1 November 1918	Independence of North Yemen from the Turkish Empire
	30 November 1967	Independence of South Yemen from the United Kingdom

Burma was almost completely occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second World War. Many Burmese fought alongside Japan in the initial stages of the war, though the Burmese Army and most Burmese switched sides in 1945.

A transitional government sponsored by the British government was formed in the years following the Second World War, ultimately leading to Burma's independence in January 1948.

Following the capitulation of France and the formation of the Vichy regime, France's Indochinese possessions were given to Japan. While there was some argument that Indochina should not be returned to France, particularly from the United States, Cambodia nevertheless remained under French rule after the end of hostilities.

France had placed Norodom Sihanouk on the throne in 1941 and was hoping for a puppet monarch. They were mistaken. However, the King led the way to Cambodian independence in 1953, taking advantage of the background of the First Indochina War being fought in Vietnam.

Ceylon was an important base of operations for the Western Allies during the Second World War. The British gave in to popular pressure for independence and in February 1948, the country won its independence as the Dominion of Ceylon.

For some clarification and more detail including the sovereignty status of the Republic of China, see the following articles: History of China, Cross-Strait relations, One-China policy and Political status of Taiwan. Hong Kong was returned to the United Kingdom following its occupation by the Japanese during the Second World War.^[2] It was controlled directly by a British governor until the expiry of the ninety-nine-year lease of the New Territories, which occurred in 1997. From that date, the territory was returned to People's Republic of China and controlled as a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China.

Philippine revolutionaries unilaterraly declared independence from Spain in 1898, during the Spanish–American War, but sovereignty remained with Spain. Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris that concluded that war. In 1899, Philippine revolutionaries established the insurgent First Philippine Republic. Shortly thereafter, the Philippine–American War began, ending in 1901 with a U.S. victory, though isolated fighting continued for several years thereafter.

In 1902, the Philippines became a U.S. territory with the passage of the Philippine Organic Act, later becoming a U.S. Commonwealth in 1936. It was occupied by the Japanese during the Second World War. In 1943, with Japan granting it a short-lived nominal independence. In 1944, the Allied invasion of the Philippines by combined U.S. and Filipino troops began, which resulted in Americans and Filipinos regaining full control of the nation. In 1946, the United States recognised Philippine independence in the 1946 Treaty of Manila.

The "colonial power" and "colonial name" columns are merged when required to denote territories, where current countries are established, that have not been decolonised but achieved independence in different ways.

Country/ region[a]	Colonial name	Colonial power[b]	Independence declared and/or achieved[c]	First head of state[d]	Independence won through
Philippines	Spanish East Indies	Spain	12 June 1898 declared	Emilio Aguinaldo	Philippine Revolution [e]
	Philippines	Empire of Japan  United States	4 July 1946	Manuel Roxas	World War II
	Republic of the Philippines	United States	4 July 1946 achieved	Manuel Roxas	Treaty of Manila (1946)
Yemen[f]	Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen	Ottoman Empire	1 November 1918	Yahya I	World War I
	Colony and Protectorate of Aden	British Empire	30 November 1967	Qahtan Mohammed al-Shaabi	Aden Emergency
Afghanistan	Emirate of Afghanistan	British Empire	19 August 1919	Amanullah Khan	Third Anglo-Afghan War
Egypt[g]	Sultanate of Egypt		28 February 1922[h]	Fuad I[i]	Egyptian revolution of 1919
Iraq	Mandatory Iraq		3 October 1932[j]	Faisal I of Iraq	-[k]
Lebanon	Greater Lebanon	France	22 November 1943	Bechara El Khoury[l]	–
Syria	Mandate of Syria		30 November 1943	Shukri al-Quwatli	Syrian Revolution
Indonesia[m]	Dutch East Indies	Netherlands	17 August 1945	Sukarno	Indonesian National Revolution
	Empire of Japan	Japan	27 December 1949[n]
Vietnam[o]	French Indochina  Empire of Japan	France  Japan	2 September 1945	Hồ Chí Minh	August Revolution
Jordan	Emirate of Transjordan	British Empire	25 May 1946	Abdullah I
Pakistan[p]	India	British Empire	14 August 1947	Liaquat Ali Khan[q]	-[r]
Bangladesh as part of  Pakistan			14 August 1947[s]	Liaquat Ali Khan[t]
India[u]			15 August 1947[v]	Jawaharlal Nehru[w]	Indian independence movement
Myanmar[x]	Japan		1 August 1943	U Nu
	British Burma		4 January 1948
Sri Lanka[y]	British Ceylon		4 February 1948	Don Senanayake	-
			22 February 1972
Israel	Mandatory Palestine	British Empire  Arab League	14 May 1948[z]	David Ben-Gurion[aa]	1948 Palestine war
South Vietnam[ab]	French Indochina	France	28 May 1948	Ngo Dinh Diem	1955 State of Vietnam referendum
			23 October 1955
South Korea	Japanese Korea	Empire of Japan	15 August 1945	Syngman Rhee[ac]	Korean independence movement
			15 August 1948[ad]
North Korea			15 August 1945	Kim Il Sung[ae]
			9 September 1948[af]
China[ag]	Manchukuo		9 August 1945	Chiang kai shek[ah]	Second Sino-Japanese War
	Nationalist government on Mainland China	Republic of China	1 October 1949[ai]		Chinese Civil War
Taiwan and Penghu[aj]	Taiwan	Japan	15 August 1945	Chen Yi	Second Sino-Japanese War
			25 October 1945[ak]
			28 April 1952[al]
Laos[am]	French Indochina	France	22 October 1953[an]	Sisavang Vong[ao]	-[ap]
Cambodia			9 November 1953	Norodom Sihanouk
Malaysia	Malaya Colony of North Borneo Colony of Sarawak	British Empire	31 August 1957	Tuanku Abdul Rahman	Malayan Emergency[aq]
			16 September 1963
Cyprus	British Cyprus		16 August 1960[ar]	Makarios III	-[as]
Kuwait	Sheikhdom of Kuwait		19 June 1961[at]	Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah	–
Oman	Muscat and Oman[au]		9 August 1970	Qaboos bin Said	Night attack on Muscat -[av]
Singapore	Straits Settlements		31 August 1963	Yusof Ishak	–
			9 August 1965[aw]
Maldives	Maldives		26 July 1965	Muhammad Fareed Didi	–
Qatar	Qatar		3 September 1971	Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani	–
United Arab Emirates	Trucial States		2 December 1971[ax]	Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan	–
Bahrain	Bahrain		15 August 1971[4][ay]	Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifa[az]	-[ba]
East Timor	Dutch East Indies	Dutch East Indies  German Empire			Under colonial occupation.[bb]
	Portuguese Timor	Portugal  United Kingdom
	Empire of Japan	Japan
	Portuguese Timor	Portugal	28 November 1975[bc]	Francisco Xavier do Amaral Xanana Gusmão
	Timor Timur	Indonesia	1999[bd]	Xanana Gusmão
	United Nations	East Timor	20 May 2002		UNTAIET
Brunei	Brunei	British Empire	1 January 1984	Hassanal Bolkiah	-[be]
Hong Kong	British Hong Kong		1 July 1997[bf]	Tung Chee-hwa	–
Macau	Portuguese Macau	Portugal	20 December 1999[bf]	Edmund Ho	–
Palestine[bg][bh][bj]	Mandatory Palestine  West Bank	British Empire  Arab League  Jordan	14 May 1948 10 June 1967; 15 November 1988;[bk] independence pending due to territorial dispute with Israel	N/A; Yasser Arafat; Mahmoud Abbas	Six-Day War; Egypt–Israel peace treaty; Jordanian disengagement from the West Bank; Israeli–Palestinian conflict

The 9 states may be divided into the following five regional categories. The distinguishing traits of each region result from geographic and cultural factors as well as their respective historical relations with Russia. Not included in these categories are the several de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition (read below: Separatist conflicts).

Region	Country name	First flag	Current flag	Capital	Independence
Asia	Russia (Russian Federation)			Moscow	12 December 1991
Central Asia	Uzbekistan (Republic of Uzbekistan)			Tashkent	31 August 1991
	Kazakhstan (Republic of Kazakhstan)			Nur-Sultan	16 December 1991
	Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz Republic)			Bishkek	31 August 1991
	Tajikistan (Republic of Tajikistan)			Dushanbe	9 September 1991
	Turkmenistan			Ashgabat	27 October 1991
Transcaucasia	Georgia (formerly the Republic of Georgia)			Tbilisi	9 April 1991
	Azerbaijan (Republic of Azerbaijan)			Baku	30 August 1991
	Armenia (Republic of Armenia)			Yerevan	21 September 1991
Total former Soviet Union

British colonies in South Asia, East Asia, And Southeast Asia:

• British Burma (1824–1948, merged with India by the British from 1886 to 1937)
• British Ceylon (1833-1948, now Sri Lanka)
• British Hong Kong (1842–1997)
• Colonial India (includes the territory of present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh)

Danish India (1696–1869)

Swedish Parangipettai (1733)

British India (1613–1947)

British East India Company (1757–1858)

British Raj (1858–1947)

French colonies in South and Southeast Asia:

• French India (1769–1954)
• French Indochina (1887–1953), including:

• French Cambodia (1863–1953)
• French Laos (1893–1953)
• French Cochinchine, Annam and Tonkin (1862–1949, now Vietnam)
• Guangzhouwan (1898–1945)

Dutch, British, Portuguese colonies and Russian territories in Asia:

• Dutch India (1605–1825)
• Dutch Bengal
• Dutch Ceylon (1656–1796)
• Portuguese Ceylon (1505–1658)
• Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) – Dutch colony from 1800 to 1949 (included Netherlands New Guinea until 1962)
• Portuguese India (1510–1961)
• Portuguese Macau – Portuguese colony, the first European colony in China (1557–1999)
• Portuguese Timor (1702–1975, now East Timor)
• Malaya (now part of Malaysia):

Portuguese Malacca (1511–1641)

Dutch Malacca (1641–1824)

British Malaya, included:

• Straits Settlements (1826–1946)
• Federated Malay States (1895–1946)
• Unfederated Malay States (1885–1946)

Federation of Malaya (under British rule, 1948–1963)

• British Borneo (now part of Malaysia), including:

• Labuan (1848–1946)h
• North Borneo (1882–1941)

• Crown Colony of North Borneo (1946–1963)

• Crown Colony of Sarawak (1946–1963)

• Brunei

• British Brunei (1888–1984) (British protectorate)

• Russian Manchuria – ceded to Russian Empire through Treaty of Aigun (1858) and Treaty of Peking (1860)
• Philippines:

Spanish Philippines (1565–1898, 3rd longest European colony in Asia, 333 years),

• Singapore – British colony (1819–1959)
• Insular Government of the Philippine Islands - U.S. colony (1902-1946)
• Taiwan:

Spanish Formosa (1626–1642)

Dutch Formosa (1624–1662)

• Bahrain

• Portuguese Bahrain (1521–1602)
• British Protectorate (1861–1971)

• Iraq

• Mandatory Iraq (1920–1932) (British protectorate)
• Kingdom of Iraq (1932–1958)

• Israel and Palestine

• Mandatory Palestine (1920–1948) (British Mandate)

• Jordan

• Emirate of Transjordan (1921–1946) (British protectorate)

• Kuwait

• Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1899–1961) (British protectorate)

• Lebanon and Syria

• French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon (1923–1946)

• Oman

• Portuguese Oman (1507–1650)
• Muscat and Oman (1892–1971) (British protectorate)

• Qatar

• British protectorate of Qatar (1916–1971)

• United Arab Emirates

• Trucial States (1820–1971) (British protectorate)

• Yemen

• Aden Protectorate (1869–1963)
• Colony of Aden (1937–1963)
• Federation of South Arabia (1962–1967)
• Protectorate of South Arabia (1963–1967)

• Afghanistan – founded by the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 of the United Kingdom and declared independence in 1919

• Emirate of Afghanistan (1879–1919) (British protectorate)

• China – independent, but within European cultures of influence which were largely limited to the colonised ports except for Manchuria.

• Concessions in China
• Shanghai International Settlement (1863–1941)
• Shanghai French Concession (1849–1943)
• Concessions in Tianjin (1860–1947)

• Bhutan – in British sphere of influence
• Iran – in the Russian sphere of influence in the north and British in the south
• Japan – a Great power that had its own colonial empire (including Korea and Taiwan)
• Mongolia – in the Russian sphere of influence and later Soviet controlled
• Nepal – in British sphere of influence
• Saudi Arabia - most of Saudi Arabia has always been independent, including the Sharifate of Mecca in Hejaz which was under the Ottomans but with a dual system of government shared between the Sharif and the Ottoman Wali or governor.
• Thailand – the only independent state in Southeast Asia, but bordered by a British sphere of influence in the north and south and French influence in the northeast and east
• Turkey – successor to the Ottoman Empire in 1923; the Ottoman Empire itself could be considered a colonial empire
• Philippines – newly independent state who fought against the United States from 1899-1902. The nation was dissolved after the American victory. It was led by President Emilio Aguinaldo who struggled to keep the nation's independence. On April 19, 1901, Aguinaldo took an oath of allegiance to the United States. This marked the formal end of the Republic as he recognized the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines.

The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessions and the date of decolonisation.

•  Japan:
  • Manchuria (Manchukuo), Northern China (1945/1946)
  •  Philippines (1945/1946)
  •  Burma (1945/1948)
  •  North Korea (1945/1948)
  •  South Korea (1945/1948)
  •  Taiwan (1945/1949)
  •  Malaysia
  •  Singapore (1965)
  •  Taiwan (1642)
  •  Indonesia (1945/1949)
  • Netherlands New Guinea (1962)

Disclaimer: Not all areas were considered part of Imperial Japan but rather part of puppet states & sphere of influence, allies, included separately for demographic purposes. Sources: POPULSTAT Asia Oceania

Other occupied World War 2 islands:

• Andaman Islands (India) – 29 March 1942 – 9 September 1945
• Christmas Island (Australia) – March 1942 – October 1945

• Kohima and Manipur (India)
• Dornod (Khalkhin Gol, Mongolia)
• Midway Atoll (United States)

• Air raids
  • Pearl Harbor (Hawaii, United States)
  • Colombo and Trincomalee (Sri Lanka)
  • Air raids on Australia, including:
    • Broome (Western Australia, Australia)
    • Darwin (Northern Territory, Australia)
    • Townsville (Queensland, Australia)
  • Dutch Harbor (Alaska, United States)
  • Lookout Air Raids (Oregon, United States)
• Naval bombardment by submarine
  • British Columbia (Canada)
  • Santa Barbara (California, United States)
  • Fort Stevens (Oregon, United States)
  • Newcastle (New South Wales, Australia)
  • Gregory (Western Australia, Australia)
• Midget sub attack
  • Sydney (New South Wales, Australia)
  • Diego Suarez (Madagascar)

• French Indochina
  • French Indochinese Union (1887–1954)
    • Laos (protectorate) (1893–1953)
    • Cambodia (protectorate) (1863–1953)
    • Vietnam
      • Cochinchina (Southern Vietnam) (1858–1949)
      • Annam (protectorate) (Central Vietnam) (1883–1949)
      • Tonkin (protectorate) (Northern Vietnam) (1884–1949)
      • State of Vietnam (1949–1954)
      • Democratic Republic of Vietnam
      • Spratly Islands (1933–1939)
      • Paracel Islands (1933–1939)
    • Some territories on the eastern of Thailand. Thailand has lost 3 territories in total in the past 15 years, for example:
      • Chanthaburi Province (1893–1905)
      • Trat Province (1904–1907)
      • Dan Sai District (in the area of the Loei Province: 1903–1907)
• India and Sri Lanka
  • French India
    • French Establishments of India, composed of Pondichéry (1765–1954); Karikal (1725–1954); Mahé (1721–1954) Yanaon (1723–1954); Chandernagor (1673–1952)
• Taiwan
  • The city/port of Keelung (1884–1885)
  • Pescadores Islands (1885)
• Basilan (1845)
• China
  • The territory of Kouang-Tchéou-Wan (a dependency of French Indochina) (1898–1945)
  • The foreign concessions: French Concession of Shanghai (1849–1946), Tianjin (1860–1946) and Hankou (1898–1946)
  • The spheres of French influence officially recognised by China in the provinces of Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong
  • Shamian Island (1859–1949) (a fifth of the island)
• Palestine
• Syria or French Syria (1920–1946) (French Mandate of Syria)
  • Alawite State (1920–1936)
  • State of Aleppo (1920–1924)
  • State of Jabal Druze (1921–1936)
  • State of Damascus (1920–1924)
  • Sanjak of Alexandretta (now part of Turkey)
  • State of Greater Lebanon (now it is Lebanon) (1920–1946)
• Lebanon or French Lebanon (1920–1946) (French Mandate of Lebanon)
  • Mount Lebanon (An international protocol fixes the autonomy of the mount Lebanon under the protection of France.)
• Yemen
  • Cheikh Saïd (Some French atlases and history books claimed the territory was French, but France never occupied it and never claimed jurisdiction or sovereignty over the territory, which therefore was never French, remaining under Turkish, then Yemeni control.)

• United Nations list of non-self-governing territories
• List of dependent territories
• List of predecessors of sovereign states in Asia
• Colonialism
• Persian Gulf Residency
• Imperialism in Asia
• Taiwan under Japanese rule
• Decolonisation
• Wars of national liberation

• Panikkar, K. M. (1953) Asia and Western Dominance, 1498–1945, London: G. Allen and Unwin.